دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320The Structure of Gilaki Verb Phrase on the Basis of VP Internal Subject Hypothesisگروه فعلی زبان گیلکی براساس فرضیۀ فاعل در درون گروه فعلی723389310.22124/plid.2020.13982.1385FAالههجهان پناهدانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلانمنصورشعبانیاستادیار زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلان0000-0003-0884-7962Journal Article20190729The present paper aims to support the VP-internal subject hypothesis in the Gilaki language within a minimalist perspective. The data of this qualitative research has been collected from different sources including the authors’ linguistic intuition and spoken and written texts. It is worth nothing that the variety of Gilaki selected and explored in this research is spoken in the center and west of the Guilan province. However, the findings can be generalized to all other varieties of Gilaki. We provided pieces of evidence from floating quantifiers, coordinate structure constraint, idiom chunks and raising in order to specify the base-position of the external argument (argument), and showed that the Gilaki data verify the VP-internal subject hypothesis. In fact, We argued that subject is base generated in [Spec,VP], and then move to [Spec,IP] to satisfy the Extended Projection Principle [EPP]. In other words, all arguments of the verbs including subject are base generated within VP, and the surface position of the subject [Spec,IP] hosts a derived subject. <br /> <br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong> <br />Koopman and Sportiche (1991) were the first who proposed the Predicate-Internal Subject Hypothesis (henceforth PISH). Under this hypothesis, the subject is base generated in the specifier of the verb phrase (VP), and then it moves into the specifier position of the inflectional phrase (IP). Therefore, the subject in the specifier position of the inflectional phrase is in fact a derived subject. Since the inflectional head, in some languages, has a strong D/N-feature, subject must then move to [Spec,IP] before Spell-Out. In this regard, this research aims to explore PISH in the Gilaki language. We will provide evidence to argue that this hypothesis can be generalized to Gilaki too. <br /><strong> </strong> <br /><strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong> <br />This study has been carried out within the framework of The Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1995, 2000, 2001). We will provide evidence such as floating quantifiers, coordinate structure constraint, idiom chunks and raising developed in Hornstein, Nunes and Grohmann (2005) to argue that the Gilaki data are compatible with the basic idea behind PISH. <br /><strong> </strong> <br /><strong>3. Methodology</strong> <br />This study is regarded as a qualitative research carried out within the framework of The Minimalist Program. The data were collected using the authors’ linguistic intuition as well as spoken and written sources. It is worth noting that the variety of Gilaki is often regarded as a language having its own dialects which are phonologically, morphologically, and grammatically different from one another in some respects. The variety of Gilaki described and analyzed in this research is spoken in the center and west of Guilan province. However, it seems that the findings can be generalized to all other varieties of Gilaki. <br /><strong> </strong> <br /><strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong> <br />The floating quantifiers suggest that in the Gilaki language a quantifier and a determiner phrase (DP) make up a syntactic constituent at some point in the derivation. In sentences containing floating quantifier, the DP may move out of the specifier position of VP and leave the quantifier stranded. This means that the subject has been base-generated within the VP. Under the Coordinate Structure Constraint, one cannot extract out of a single conjunct. Given this constraint, we showed that when an active and a passive verb phrase are coordinated, the subject of the first conjunct is base generated in [Spec,VP], and the subject in the second conjunct moves out of a post verbal position to the specifier of VP. Then the subjects of the two conjuncts occupying the specifier of the active verb phrase (first conjunct) and passive verb phrase (second conjunct) move to the specifier of a higher IP via ATB movement. In fact, this constraint can contribute to determining the underlying position of the subject ([Spec,VP]) in Gilaki. The idioms and the raising construction can show us where the subject has been base-generated. A variety of idioms are formed by merging subject, object, and verb as a single constituent in which the subject cannot be freely changed. The important point that can unfold the underlying subject position in such idioms is that the subject together with the verb and its complement are interpreted idiomatically and form a syntactic constituent. This verifies the view that the verb and all its arguments are taken to be a single constituent at some point in the derivation in the sense that subjects and objects occupy [Spec,VP] and the position of the complement of the verb (sister to V) respectively. Then, the subject moves to [Spec,IP] to satisfy the Extended Projection Principle [EPP]. <br /><strong> </strong> <br /><strong>5. Conclusions & Suggestions</strong> <br />In this paper, we provided evidence such as floating quantifiers, coordinate structure constraint, idiom chunks, and the raising construction developed in Hornstein, Nunes and Grohmann (2005) to argue that the Gilaki data are compatible with the basic idea behind PISH. The floating quantifiers demonstrate that in the Gilaki language a quantifier and a DP can make up a syntactic constituent functioning as a subject in [Spec,VP], and then the DP may move out of this position and leave the quantifier stranded. Using the Coordinate Structure Constraint, we showed that active and passive verb phrases can be coordinated and the subjects of the two conjuncts occupying the specifier of the active verb phrase (first conjunct) and passive verb phrase (second conjunct) move to the specifier of a higher IP via ATB movement. Finally, we investigated PISH in the idioms in which subject, object, and verb make up a syntactic constituent and are interpreted idiomatically. In such idioms, verb and its arguments are all merged within VP, and then the subject moves into [Spec, IP] to satisfy the EPP feature. <br /> <br /><strong>Select Bibliography </strong> <br />Adger, D. 2004. <em> Core syntax: A minimalist approach</em> (Vol. 20). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <br />Chomsky, N. 1995. “The minimalist program MIT Press”. Cambridge, MA. <br />ــــــــــــــــــ. 2000. “Minimalist Inquiries: The framework”. <em>Step by step: Essays on minimalist syntax in honor of Howard Lasnik</em>, (Eds.), 89-155. <br />ـــــــــــــــــــ. 2001. “Derivation by phase”. M. Kenstowicz (Ed.), Ken Hale: <em>A life in language</em>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.1-52. <br />Dabir Moghaddam, M. 2004. <em>Theoretical linguistics: emergence and development of generative grammar.</em> Tehran: Samt Publication. [in Persian] <br />Haegeman, L. 1994. <em>Introduction to government and binding theory</em>. Wiley-Blackwell. <br />Hornstein, N., Nunes, J., & Grohmann, K. K. 2005. <em>Understanding minimalism</em>. Cambridge: CUP. <br />Koopman, H., & Sportiche, D. 1991. “The position of subjects”. <em>Lingua</em>, <em>85</em>(2-3): 211-258. <br />Radford, A. 2009. <em>English sentence structure</em>. Cambridge: CUP. <br />Sportiche, D. 1988. “A theory of floating quantifiers and its corollaries for constituent structure”. <em>Linguistic inquiry</em>, <em>19</em>(3): 425-449. <br /> پژوهش حاضر به طرح شواهد در حمایت از فرضیۀ فاعل در درون گروه فعلی زبان گیلکی در چارچوب برنامة کمینهگرا میپردازد. دادههای این پژوهش کیفی است و از شمّ زبانی نگارندگان و متون گفتاری و نوشتاری جمعآوری شدهاند. گرچه گونۀ توصیف و تحلیل شده در مرکز و غرب استان گیلان رایج است اما به نظر میرسد نتایج این پژوهش به سایر گونههای گیلکی نیز تعمیمپذیر باشد. در این مقاله با طرح شواهدی مانند سور شناور،محدودیت ساخت همپایه، اصطلاحپارهها و ارتقا، به تعیین جایگاه موضوع بیرونی (فاعل) پرداختیم و نشان دادیم که دادههای زبانی گیلکی، فرضیۀ فاعل در درون گروه فعلی را تأیید میکند. تمام شواهد مؤید آن است که در زبان گیلکی، فاعل در جایگاه مشخصگر گروه فعلی اشتقاقدرپایه مییابد، و سپس برای ارضای اصل فرافکنی گسترده از جایگاه مشخصگر گروه فعلی (Spec VP) به جایگاه مشخصگر گروه تصریفی (Spec IP) حرکت میکند. به بیانی دیگر، دادهها نشان میدهند که فاعل به همراه سایر موضوعهای فعل در درون گروه فعلی تولید میشود و موضوع بیرونیِ واقع در جایگاه مشخصگر گروه تصریفی، یک فاعل اشتقاقی است.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320Case-marking and Agreement System in Arani Language within the Theoretical Framework of Chomsky's Minimalist Programنظام حالت دهی و مطابقۀ الگوی کُناییِ زبان آرانی در چارچوب برنامۀ کمینه گرا2543389410.22124/plid.2019.13601.1374FAاسماءکریمی مقدم ارانیدانشجوی دکتری زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه الزهرا (س)فریدهحق بیندانشیار زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه الزهرا (س)Journal Article20190616This paper examines the case-marking and agreement system in Arani language within the theoretical framework of Chomsky's Minimalist Program (MP). Arani is one of the central dialects of Iran whose ancestry is unclear, but is closer to the Persian language (Boyce, 1998). The language has been extensively used in Iran for some time (Brunner, 1977), however, today it is limited to Aran-o-Bidgol, in the northeast of Isfahan province. In order to study and extract its ergative model, the sentences and data were collected through interviews with 20 speakers, and in a few cases, through questionnaires and a collection of books. The results of the data analysis showed that Arani language follows split ergativity. The present transitive verbs in this language represent the Nominative-Accusative pattern, and the past transitive verbs follow the Ergative-Absolutive pattern. In addition, the analysis of the data showed that the transitive verbs have no agreement with the object of the sentence, and they appear by default in the form of the third singular. The ergative case of the subject is inherent and conditional, and is marked by the doubling clitic. Also, in the compound verbs, the host of the clitic is the preverb of the compound verb.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
In the grammatical model of the ergative construction, the subject of the intransitive clause and the object of the transitive clause bear the same function and receive the absolutive case. Variously, the subject of the transitive clause, differing from them, receives the ergative case. The Phi features (person, gender and number) of the verb show agreement with the subject of intransitive clause and the object of transitive clause, however, the subject of transitive is not capable of motivating the agreement on the verb. Thus, at least, in some of the ergative languages, the subject of intransitive clause and object of transitive clause play a role in the morphologic or syntactic balance, as well as in agreement and case-marking systems.
Investigating the agreement and case-marking systems of different patterns of ergative model helps linguists achieve an organized system to classify languages. In this regard, the present paper attempts to extend Karimi's (2013, 2009) generalization of the unaccusativity of the ergative verbs by examining the prominent role and the function of the aforementioned nominal groups in agreement and case-marking systems of Arani language, bearing a split ergativity pattern. It also portrays their role in agreement between the time nucleus and the nominal group, and finally it answers the following questions “why does the time nucleus in Arani ergative construction regarding Phi features have no agreement with the nominal group?”, and “why does it always appear as singular third person in the past transitive clauses?”.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
The theoretical framework of this paper for analyzing the agreement system of ergative construction in Arani language is the late forms of theoretical framework of Chomsky's Minimalist Program (MP) (2001; 2001; 2000). In the minimalist program, there is a close connection between the agreement and the case. In the agreement relation, of the nominative- nominative-accusative system, the person, number, and gender features of the nucleus are valued with the corresponding features of the nominal group; on the other hand, the nucleus determines the value of the nominal group case. The nucleus always conveys the structural case (nominative and accusative) to the closest noun group to which it dominates, regardless of its semantic and phonetic properties. In the case of the time nucleus, this closest nominal group is the subject, and in the case of the present nucleus, it is often the object. However this is not always the case, for example in the passive construction; the closest nominal group dominated by the nucleus of time is object. Interactive and active communication between the nucleus and the nominal group is important in structural case-marking, as the nominal group receives the case from the time nucleus, it should also evaluate the Phi features of verb.
Case-marking of the ergative construction is divided into two groups according to whether it is tagged with the clitic or by the affix: one is the ergative pattern in which the object receives the nominative case, and the subject receives the accusative case; and the verb agrees with the Phi features represented by the affix. Another is the ergative pattern, in which ergative case is denoted by the doubling clitic and the verb is represented by the singular third person.
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
To answer the questions and to confirm the research hypotheses, we chose the late forms of theoretical framework of Chomsky's Minimalist Program (MP) (2000, 2001, and 2008) following Karimi (2012a). Data were collected based on both library and field research, however, since most speakers of this language are elderly and often illiterate, the data are mostly field-based and spoken, and collected via face-to-face interviews with 20 speakers; moreover, in a few cases questionnaires were used. The sources of the cited libraries are collections of current clauses, proverbs, vocabulary, and syllables that Alijanzadeh (2018, 2014 and 1994) collected in the 3-volume Desert Language Book.
<strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong>
The analysis of field-based and libraries data showed that Arani language has a split ergativity pattern; such that the present transitive, and the present and past transitive clauses follow the nominative-accusation pattern, while the past transitive clauses follow the ergative pattern. The ergative case of nominative is represented in the past transitive clauses by a doubling clitic. In this case of the ergative pattern, the verb has no agreement with the object, but the verb always appears in the third person singular, by default. In addition, the examination of the ergative clauses having compound verbs has led us to this generalization, at least in Arani language, that whenever the verb of transitive clause is compound, the clitic does not descend on the object, but as a result of ascending, the clitic moves from the main host, which is the verb, to the pre-verb part.
The presence of the doubling clitic can be the result of the disappearance of the distinction between the ergative and nominative of the Arani language in the transition from inflectional to analytic. With the disappearance of case affix, and at the same time, with the tendency of this language to preserve the ergative pattern, the clitics that are currently used in an ergative place, are good alternatives. Entering the doubling process into this language, the subject of intransitive clause and object of transitive clause receive the nominative case; and subject of the intransitive clause is distinguished by doubling process. In this way, the Arani language has been able to maintain its ergative pattern.
<strong>5. Conclusion</strong>
This study has examined the agreement and case-marking system of ergative pattern in Arani language. The data analysis showed that the ergative pattern of this language is the second type, meaning that the subject is represented in a direct / unmarked manner and the ergative case by doubling clitic on object or the pre-verb part of compound verb. Due to the incomplete interference of the clitic, verb in Phi features has no agreement with object; the verb always appears in the third person singular, by default.
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Alijanzadeh Arani, H. 1993. <em>The Language of the Desert</em>, Kashan: Shafaq Publications. [in Persian]
Boyce, M. 1998. <em>Party Writings and Literature</em>, Amir Kabir Publications. [in Persian]
Burzio, L. 1986. <em>Italian syntax. A Government-Binding approach</em>. Studies in generative grammar, Dordrecht: Foris.
Chomsky, N. 1986. <em>Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use. </em>New York: Praeger.
Chomsky, N. 2000. Minimalist inquiries: the framework. In Martin, R., Michaels, D. & Uriagereka, J. (Eds.), <em>Step by Step: Essays on Minimalist Syntax in Honor of Howard Lasnik, 89-155.</em>
Chomsky, N. 2001. Derivation by phase. In Kenstowicz, M. (Ed.), <em>Ken Hale: A Life in Language </em>355-426, Cambridge: MIT Press<em>.</em>
Dabir Moghaddam, M. 2008. <em>Theoretical Linguistics: The Origin and Development of the </em><em>Generative</em> <em>Grammar </em>(Second Edition), Tehran: Samt Publications. [in Persian]
Karimi, Y. 2010. Unaccusative transitives and the Person-Case Constraint effects in Kurdish. <em>Lingua, 120, </em>693-716.
Karimi, Y. 2012a. Competition in the Iranian Arbitrary System: The Competition of Vocabulary and Word, <em>Journal of Linguistic Research</em>, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 1-18. [in Persian]
Karimi, Y. 2012b. An Overview of the Absolute State in Ergative Structure, <em>Journal of Linguistic Research</em>, No. 2, 95-113. [in Persian]آرانی از گویشهای مرکزی ایران است که نیای آن مشخص نیست، اما به زبان پارتی، نزدیکتر است و زمانی در مناطق گستردهای از ایران به کار میرفت، اما امروزه تنها محدود به شهر آران و بیدگل، در شمال شرقی استان اصفهان است. در بررسی و استخراج الگوی کنایی این زبان، جملات و دادهها به شیوۀ میدانی و گفتوگو و مصاحبۀ حضوری با 20 گویشور جمعآوری شده، و در موارد معدودی از پرسشنامه، و همچنین از مجموعه کتابهایی که جملات این زبان را گردآوری کردهاند استفاده شدهاست. نتایج نشان داد زبان آرانی از الگوی کنایی گسسته پیروی میکند. بندهای دارای ستاک فعل متعدیِ زمان حال در این زبان، الگوی فاعلی- مفعولی، و بندهای دارای ستاک فعل متعدی گذشته از الگوی کنایی- مطلق تبعیت میکنند. همچنین فعل بند متعدی با مفعول ارجاع متقابل ندارد، بلکه در قالب سوم شخص مفرد ظاهر میشود. حالت کنایی فاعل بهصورت ذاتی و مشروط به شرایط خاص اعطا میشود و با واژهبست مضاعفساز بازنمایی میشود. در بندهای دارای فعل مرکب، میزبانِ واژهبست، بخش غیرفعلی است.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320Pentasyllabic Feet in Arabic and Persian Prosody and Their Function in Persian Prosodyرکنهای پنجهجایی در عروض عربی و فارسی و کارکرد آنها در عروض فارسی4565385610.22124/plid.2019.13169.1361FAعلی اصغرقهرمانی مقبلدانشیار زبان و ادبیات عربی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی تهرانJournal Article20190506The identification of prosodic feet and their syllable arrangements have an undeniably important role in identifying and categorizing families of poetic meters (<em>buhūr</em>) in Arabic and Persian prosody. Any confusion in the identification of poetic feet can lead to confusion in understanding and teaching prosody, just as proper organization of feet can facilitate the classification of meters and prosodic pedagogy. In this article, we will consider the Arabic pentasyllabic feet and their effect on Persian traditional prosody and evaluate the viewpoints of contemporary prosodists since Parviz Natel Khanlari, Abolhassan Najafi, and Laurence Paul Elwell-Sutton. We will argue that, based on the poetic evidence, the use of pentasyllabic feet significantly helps us teach and categorize Persian meters and remove one of the important shortcomings of Persian prosody. Moreover, the present article will emphasize the necessity of using pentasyllabic feet in the study of prosody and will discuss the relationship between such feet and the circular ones (<em>vazn-e dowrī</em>).
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
Grouping poetic feet has been one of the most important issues of Arabic and Persian prosody. This is because, on the one hand, learning any meter involves a knowledge of its feet and meters are remembered in terms of their foot arrangement, and, on the other hand, it is the foot arrangement that determines the place of each meter in the system of meters. Also, the foot arrangement defines the relationship between each meter and its family.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
There are two different theories in Persian prosody: traditional and modern. I have adopted the modern theory in this study to specify prosodic feet and arrangement of them in meters, although, through a historical view, I have commented on the traditional theory, as well.
<strong>3. Methodology </strong>
I have taken a comparative approach in this article involving Persian and Arabic prosody, but I have mostly focused on Persian here. Also, I have provided a historical view of the development of pentasyllabic feet through the centuries.
<strong>4. Results and Discussion</strong>
Of the ten principal feet of Arabic poetry, two are pentasyllabic: <em>mufā’alatun</em> and <em>mutafā’ilun</em>. Based on the rules of <em>zihāf</em> (pl. <em>zihāfāt</em>) and ‘<em>illa</em> (pl. <em>ilal</em>) of Arabic poetry (which allow certain limited modifications to feet without changing their type), we may obtain the following feet from the <em>mutafā’ilun</em> foot which are named <em>muraffal</em> feet: <em>mustaf’ilātun</em>, <em>mafā’ilātun</em>, and <em>mufta’ilātun</em>. According to Arabic prosody, these feet are all found at the last foot of the second hemistich (<em>ḍarb</em>).
<strong>- Pentasyllabic Feet in Persian Poetry</strong>
Traditional prosodists have admitted four pentasyllabic feet (i.e., <em>mustaf’ilātun</em>, <em>mufā’ilātun</em>, <em>mufta’ilātun</em> and <em>fā’ilīyātun</em>) on condition that they solely appear at the end of the second half-lines. Due to the fact that meters with pentasyllabic feet were rare until the 14<sup>th</sup> century, prosodists didn’t deem it necessary to set the rules for using this kind of feet.
<strong>- </strong><strong>Pentasyllabic</strong><strong> Feet in Modern Prosody</strong>
Mas’ud Farzad was the first modern prosodist who considered pentasyllabic feet in his prosodic system. Compared to the traditional prosodists, Farzad admits a different number of pentasyllabic feet, but the main difference between Farzad and those prosodists lies in the fact that he doesn’t restrict the position of such feet to the end of lines (i.e., the end of the second half-lines). He believes that such feet can be found in both <em>muttafiq-al-arkān</em> (single-foot-type) and <em>mutanāwib-al-arkān</em> (alternate-foot-type) meters.
Abulhassan Najafi recognizes pentasyllabic feet along with trisyllabic and tetrasyllabic ones, but does not view them as non-problematic. For him, pentasyllabic feet include <em>fa’alīyātun</em>, <em>mufta’ilātun</em>, <em>mustaf’ilatun</em>, <em>mufā’ilātun</em>, <em>mufā’īlatun</em>, <em>mustafā’ilun</em>, <em>mutafā’ilun</em>, <em>mufā’alatun</em>, <em>fā’ilīyātun</em>, and <em>mustaf’ilātun</em>. Repeating each of these feet would make a family of pentasyllabic meters.
<strong>- The Benefit </strong><strong>of</strong><strong> Pentasyllabic Feet in Persian Prosody</strong>
The important point missed by prosodists is the fact that pentasyllabic feet do not have same characteristics. We may classify pentasyllabic feet into three groups. Such feet may be made up of 1) three long and two short syllables: <em>mufā’alatun</em> (ᴗ- ᴗᴗ-) and <em>mutafāilun</em> (ᴗᴗ-ᴗ-); 2) two short and three long syllables: <em>fa’alīyātun</em> (ᴗᴗ---), <em>mufta’ilātun</em> (-ᴗᴗ--), <em>mustaf’ilatun</em> (--ᴗᴗ-), <em>mufā’ilātun</em> (ᴗ-ᴗ--), <em>mufā’īlatun</em> (ᴗ--ᴗ-), and <em>mustafā’ilun</em> (-ᴗ-ᴗ-); and 3) one short and four long syllables: <em>fā’ilīyātun</em> (-ᴗ---) and <em>mustaf’ilātun</em> (--ᴗ--).
In perfect meters formed by repeating each of the feet in the second and third groups, unlike in the first group, each foot can have a neutral syllable (i.e., can be short, long or overlong) at the end. Thus, the poet can make use of an overlong syllable at the end of each foot in the middle of the half-line in addition to the neutral syllable at the end of the half-line. In this way, each foot could serve as part of a circular meter, and each half-line, rather than being formed of two parts, could have three or four parts, each of which could function as a half-hemistich or half-<em>misrā’</em> (i.e., half-half-line) in circular meters (‘awzān-e dowrī).
<strong>5. </strong><strong>Conclusion</strong>
The following are the most important points that could be concluded from this study:
Actually practiced pentasyllabic feet are <em>fa’alīyātun</em>, <em>mufta’ilātun</em>, <em>mustaf’alatun</em>, <em>mufā’ilātun</em>, <em>mufā’ilatun</em>, <em>mustafā’ilun</em>, <em>mutafā’ilun</em>, <em>mufā’ilatun</em>, <em>fā’ilīyātun</em>, and <em>mustaf’ilātun. </em>Each of these, when repeated, could make a family of meters, but they cannot be alternated with other types of feet to make meters. In other words, they are not found in <em>mutanāwib-al-arkān</em> meters.
Unlike in traditional prosody, pentasyllabic feet are not supposed to be exclusively restricted to the end of half-lines.
Each complete pentasyllabic foot, except for <em>mutafāilun </em>and<em> mufā’alatun,</em> can serve as part of a circular meter.
Meters formed by these feet may end in incomplete feet. In such a situation, the complete feet can no longer serve as part of a circular meter.
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Elwell- Sutton, L. 1976. <em>The Persian Metres</em>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Farzad, M. 1966. <em>Mathematical Basics of Persian prosody</em>. Tehran: Printing house of Bank Melli Iran.[in Persian]
Ghahramani Moghbel, A. 2010. <em>Poetic feet</em><em>: study of a historical problem in Persian prosody</em>. Tehran: Niloofar Publications. [in Persian]
Ghahramani Moghbel, A. 2011. <em>Arabic prosody and rhyme</em>. Tehran\ Bushehr: Samt Publications\ Persian Gulf University Publications. [in Persian]
Ghahramani Moghbel, A. 2018. Definition of imperfect foot and its importance in new Persian prosody. <em>The Persian metrics: A historical study</em>. Proceedings of the third Congress on Persian metrics. Ed. O. Tabibzadeh. Tehran: Niloofar Publications, 37-57. [in Persian]
Najafi, A. 2014. Circular meters: A problem that ancient Persian prosody has ignored it. <em>Name-ye Farhangestan journal</em>, 13(2), 6-18. [in Persian]
Najafi, A. 2018. Classification of the Persian meters. Ed. O. Tabibzadeh. Tehran: Niloofar Publications. [in Persian]
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, M. 2014. Me’yar al-ash’ar. Ed. Ali-Asghar Ghahramani Moghbel. Tehran: University Publication Center. [in Persian]
Shams-e Qeis-e Razi, M. 1981. <em>Al-Mo’jam fi ma’a’ir ash’ar al-‘ajam</em>. Ed. Qazvini & Modarres-e Razavi. Tehran: Bookstore of Zovvar. [in Persian]تعیین رکنهای عروضی و نحوۀ رکنبندی وزنها، علاوه بر تأثیر در آموزش عروض، نقش مهمی در تعیین خانوادههای وزنی و طبقهبندی آنها دارد. آشفتگی در تعیین رکنها منجر به آشفتگی علم عروض و دشواری آموزش آن میشود. همچنین ساماندهی ارکان باعث تسهیل آموزش عروض و سامان دادن طبقهبندی اوزان میگردد. یکی از مباحث مهم عروض فارسی، پذیرش یا نپذیرفتن رکنهای پنجهایی و تعیین این ارکان است. در این مقاله، پس از بررسی رکنهای پنجهایی در عروض عربی و تأثیر آن در عروض سنتی فارسی، آرای مشهورترین عروضیان معاصر؛ پرویز ناتل خانلری، مسعود فرزاد، الول ساتن، وحیدیان کامیار، سیروس شمیسا و ابوالحسن نجفی را نقد و بررسی کردهایم. سپس با ذکر دلایلی مبتنی بر شواهد شعری، تأکید کردهایم که بهره گرفتن از رکنهای پنجهجایی کمک شایانی به تسهیل آموزش عروض و طبقهبندی اوزان فارسی میکند و ساماندهی این رکنها، یکی از خلأهای مهم عروض فارسی را پر میکند. در این نوشته بر ضرورت استفاده از رکنهای پنجهجایی تأکید شده و به رابطۀ میان ارکان پنجهجایی و وزن دوری نیز پرداخته شدهاست.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320A phonological study of Tajvid processes in the Holy Quran within the framework of laboratory phonologyبررسی واجی فرآیندهای تجویدی در قرآن کریم در چارچوب واجشناسی آزمایشگاهی6793411710.22124/plid.2020.15026.1421FAوحیدصادقیدانشیار زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه بینالمللی امام خمینی0000000258161769مریمبیدیکارشناس ارشد زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه بینالمللی امام خمینیJournal Article20191126This article investigates Tajvid phonological patterns, namely Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa based on laboratory methodology. To this end, a corpus of Quranic verses read by 12 Qari (three native Arabic and 9 Iranian subjects) at two different rates of speech, namely Tahghigh and Tartil, was designed and gathered. The target words in the verses were those in which the coronal nasal consonant /n/ was placed always in word-final position before words starting either with a pharyngeal/glottal consonant /?،h،Ä،X،ð،À/ (Izhar), Yarmalun phonemes, namely /j،r،m،l،w،n/ (Idgham), the labial stop /b/ (Ighlab), or any consonant other than the three groups of consonants mentioned above (Ikhfa). Analyses were conducted on both the frequency and duration of the speech signals. Results suggested that Idgham and Ighlab follow one single phonological process whereby /n/ is assimilated to the place and manner of the following consonant while it retains its [+nasal] phonetic feature. /n/ in Izhar before pharyngeal/glottal consonants is realized as a typical coronal nasal, and in Ikhfa, it is not realized at all and is recognizable only through nasalization of the preceding vowel. Overall, based on the results of the study, we propose a new classification of Tajvid phonological patterns.
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
This article investigates Tajvid phonological patterns, namely Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa based on laboratory methodology. The article is designed in several parts. First, we will investigate the phonological foundation of Tajvid. Then, the acoustical correlates of the alveolar nasal /n/ involved in Tajvid phonological patterns are introduced. Third, we will explore the assimilation of /n/ with the place of articulation of the following sounds from a phonetic point of view, and present the relevant literature in this regard. Then, speech data, research variables and instrumentation of the study are explained. Finally, based on the statistical results obtained, we will discuss the phonetic and phonological behavior of the nasal /n/ in Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa, and also the validity of the definitions assumed for these processes in Tajvid.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
Tajvid is assumed to be the rules that help read the Holy Quran properly. More specifically, Tajivd deals with how each sound is to be pronounced properly from its place of articulation, and how it is pronounced in isolation and in combination with the neighboring sounds (Al-Hashmi, 2001; Habibi, 2010).Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa are four phonological processes that are considered in Tajvid. In all these processes, /n/ undergoes different phonological changes based on the quality of the following sounds. It undergoes Idgham when it is followed by /j،r،m،l،w،n/; it involves Izhar when it precedes /?،h،Ä،X،ð،À/; it is pronounced as Ighlab when it is followed by /b/ and finally it undergoes Ikhfa when it precedes the rest of the sounds. In this article we investigate Tajvid phonological processes, i.e., Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa within the framework of laboratory phonology, based on the timing patterns of co-articulation of /n/ with the following sounds.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
The research is based on the methodology assumed under laboratory phonology (Beddor, 2007; Browman & Goldstein, 1990; Ladefoged & Maddieson, 1996; Johnson, 2003; Malecot, 1956). The four processes Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa are investigated in the relevant speech data within laboratory phonology. Izhar is considered to be the basic pattern for comparison with other phonological processes as it involves no or little phonetic changes. Then, Patterns of acoustical changes in the duration and frequency of the nasal /n/ and the following sounds are investigated in Izhar, Idgham, Ighlab and Ikhfa within laboratory phonology.
A corpus of Quranic verses read by 12 Qari (three native Arabic and 9 Iranian subjects) at two different rates of speech, namely Tahghigh and Tartil, was designed and gathered. The target words in the verses were those in which the coronal nasal consonant /n/ was placed always in word-final position before words starting either with a pharyngeal/glottal consonant /?،h،Ä،X،ð،À/ (Izhar), Yarmalun phonemes, namely /j،r،m،l،w،n/ (Idgham), the labial stop /b/ (Ighlab), or any consonant other than the three groups of consonants mentioned above (Ikhfa).
<strong> </strong>
<strong>4. Results and discussion</strong>
Analyses were conducted on both the frequency and duration of the speech signals. Results suggested that Idgham and Ighlab follow one single phonological process whereby /n/ is assimilated to the place and manner of the following consonant while it retains its [+nasal] phonetic feature. /n/ in Izhar before pharyngeal/glottal consonants is realized as a typical coronal nasal, and in Ikhfa, it is not realized at all and is recognizable only through nasalization of the preceding vowel.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>5. Conclusion </strong>
Overall, the findings of the present research indicate that we need to propose a new classification of Tajvid phonological patterns.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Al-Hashmi, A. S. 2001. ‘The Phonology of nasal n in the Language of the Holy Qur’an’, MA. A thesis. Sultan Qaboos University.
Durand, J. & Katamba, F. 1995 ‘Frontiers of phonology: atoms, structures, derivations’, Harlow: Longman.
Fujimura, O. 1962. Analysis of nasal consonants. <em>The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</em>, <em>34</em>(12), 1865-1875.
Gow Jr, D. W. 2000. Assimilation, ambiguity, and the feature parsing problem. In ICSLP-2000. vol. 2. pp. 535-538.
Jun, J. 2004. ‘Place assimilation in Phonetically based Phonology, Bruce Hayes. Robert Kirchner, & Donca Steriade. Eds.’., Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 58-86.
Ladefoged. P & Maddieson. I. 1996. ‘The Sounds of the Worlds Languages’, Oxford: Blackwell.
Malecot. A. 1956. ‘Acoustic cues for nasal consonants’. An experimental study involving a taps-splicing technique <em>Language,</em> 32(2), 274-284.
Mohanan. K. P. 1993. ‘Fields of attraction in phonology’. In The Last Phonological Rule. Reflections on Constraints and Derivations. John Goldsmith. ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 61-116.
Recasens. D. 1982. ‘Perception of Nasal Consonants with Special Reference to Catalan’. <em>Status Report on Speech Research</em>, 69, 189-226.
Sadeghi, V. 2012. Place assimilation in nasal alveolar /n/ in Persian: A categorical or gradient process? <em>Linguistic Researches</em>, 2, 57-75. [in Persian]
در این مقاله به شیوۀ آزمایشگاهی به بررسی ویژگیهای واجشناختی فرایندهای اظهار، ادغام، اقلاب و اخفا مطابق با تعاریف مطرح در علم تجوید پرداختیم. پس، پیکرۀ صوتی قرائتهای 12 قاری (3 عرب و 9 ایرانی) که آیههای هدف پژوهش را به دو سبک تحقیق (سرعت آهسته) و ترتیل (سرعت متوسط) تلاوت کرده بودند، جمعآوری شد. کلمات هدف در هر آیه کلماتی بودند که در آنها همخوان خیشومی لثوی /n/ (نون ساکن) در جایگاه پایانی کلمه و در مرز بین دو کلمه در مجاورت آواهای حلقی (اظهار)، آواهای یرملون (ادغام)، انفجاری لبی (اقلاب) و همچنین آواهایی غیر از این سه دسته (اخفا) قرار داشت. نتایج حاصل از تحلیل آوایی دادهها در دو بُعد فرکانس و زمان موج صوتی نشان داد که در دو فرایند ادغام و اقلاب یک اتفاق واجی روی میدهد. به این صورت که /n/ با محل تولید و نحوۀ تولید بافت همخوانی مجاور همگون میشود درحالی که مشخصه ]+خیشومی[ خود را همچنان حفظ میکند. /n/ در اظهار، در مجاورت آواهای حلقی و چاکنایی، تولیدی به صورت گونۀ اصلی خود یعنی خیشومی لثوی دارد و در اخفا تظاهر آوایی ندارد و فقط از طریق خیشومیشدگی واکه پیش از آن قابل تشخیص است. یافتههای واجشناختی این پژوهش بهطور کلی نشان میدهد که در طبقهبندی ارائهشده از فرایندهای واجی در علم تجوید باید تجدید نظر صورت گیرد.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320The Linguistic Differences between Literary Language and Standard Language for Teaching Persian to Non-Persian Speakersتفاوت های زبانی گونۀ نوشتار ادبی با گونۀ نوشتار معیار برای آموزش زبان فارسی به غیرفارسی زبانان95120385810.22124/plid.2019.13891.1384FAفرنازفتوحی اصفهانیدانشجوی دکتری زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتیاحمدخاتمیاستاد زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتیمهین نازمیردهقاناستاد زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی0000-0002-1094-4318Journal Article20190721In this research, we aimed to find out the structural differences between the two linguistic languages, namely standard language and literary language. First, based on the contrastive analysis of the grammar books of the literary works with the standard grammar books, the differences between these two languages were extracted and then, based on the prevalence of these differences in literary works, we divided the less common language differences into six categories:1. Obsolete language components 2. Local language components 3. Linguistic components involved with low use 4. Newborn linguistic components 5. Linguistic errors, and 6. components of colloquial, slang and broken language. Then, based on the interference theory and also relying on the syntactic principles, we categorized the more commonplace language differences into three classes: 1. Elements of the literary language with the identical appearance relative to the standard language but with a different function 2. Components of the literary language with a different appearance from the standard language but with the same function 3. Elimination or displacement of sentence elements. Then, we presented a literary example in twelve language domains including phonetic system, nouns, adjectives, numbers, pronouns, relative pronouns, verbs, adverbs, letters, interjections, word formation (referring to neologism), and sentences.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
The differences between standard language and literary language, despite similarities, are fairly remarkable. Standard language is a common type that is public, recognized among most orators of a language community, used in the press, public media and schools, and considered to be a kind of linguistic norm. In a contrasting manner, literary language is actually a departure from linguistic norms, and is considered as a kind of riot against the standard linguistic structures. In the discussion of Teaching Persian to non-Persian Speakers (AZFA) whose primary purpose is teaching a standard language, the use of literary works can be a difficult task and a kind of defeating the purpose; however, given the importance and validity of Persian literature in cultural, social, and international grounds, as well as, its unbreakable link to Persian language, its educational importance cannot be overlooked. In this study, we aimed to extract the linguistic differences between standard language and literary language. In doing so, we compared Dari's literary works with standard grammar books, and we tried, by precisely classifying these differences, to assist the authors of Persian language learning textbooks in selecting an appropriate and efficient literary work for non-Persian speakers.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
According to the findings of researchers in the field of language education such as Nation (2016), one of the main criteria for selecting texts in the discussion of language teaching is the rate of occurrence or the frequency of a linguistic component. The more inclusive a linguistic component is, the more necessary its education is. In contrast, the less inclusive a linguistic component is, the less necessary it is in the discussion of education. For this reason, and through a careful scrutiny regarding magnitude of differences in literary and standard genres in literary works, we divided the set of differences into two general categories including less common and more common differences.
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
In this study, we first investigated the linguistic features of Dari-Persian literature from the dawn to contemporary era by library research, with works such as "The History of Persian Language" by Parviz Natel-Khanlari (3 volumes), "The Historical Grammar of Persian Language" by Mohsen Abolghasemi (2002), "The Language Structure of Today's Poetry" by Alipour (1999). Consequently, comparing to standard grammar books such as "Today's Grammar" by Farshidvard (1969) and "Persian Grammar 2" by Anvari and Givi (2003), we identified their differences in twelve domains of “phonetic system, nouns, adjectives, numbers, pronouns, relative pronouns, verbs, adverbs, letters, interjections, vocabulary, and sentences”. Finally, by theories of language education, we categorized and rated these differences.
<strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong>
We divided each of the two extracted groups into different types; the less common differences are: 1. Obsolete components with no performance in today's standard Persian. 2. Components that belong to local dialects. 3. Low use foreign linguistic components 4. Newfangled components of contemporary poets and writers 5. Components considered as linguistics errors. 6. Components bearing conversational, slang, and broken expression words. We sectioned the remaining linguistic components, which were interestingly inclusive and frequent, into three categories, as more common differences based on language teaching theories. .According to the balanced type of confrontational analysis, less distinction in form and content will lead to more difficult learning processes ; therefore, in order to avoid interference effects, among the common differences and high-frequency differences; we have achieved two categories; one is "The elements of the literary language which exists in today's standard Persian but is used differently", and "The components of literary language which exists in today's standard Persian with a slight difference in form but with the same function”. We also introduced the remaining components in this group based on non-compliance with the rules of language syntax in literary works and disrupting the regular linguistic pattern entitled “Components that have been either removed from the sentence structure or have moved inside the sentences”. Eventually, we presented examples of literary works for each category.
<strong>5. Conclusions & Suggestions</strong>
Investigating the data and carefully classifying the differences between literary language and standard language in this research, we found that the first six groups of the less common differences group are less essential for teaching to non-Persian speakers; on the other hand, and since the second three categories from groups of more common differences have been assigned as the most frequent occurrences of the two linguistic differences, they are more necessary from the educational point of view. In the other words, since the less common group, have the lowest level of similarity to today's standard language, which means creating the least overlap with it (except for the last, slang, colloquial, and broken linguistic components that can be useful and effective for teaching spoken language), they can be removed from educational texts and make language learning less difficult. Needless to say, since the more common group is rather similar to today's Persian language, this makes it difficult to be learnt and impossible to be removed due to its pervasiveness. Therefore, whilst the more common group, has great educational value, it is equally difficult to be learnt. According to the aforementioned remarks, it is obligatory for the authors of AZFA books to recognize the differences between two literary and standard genres of Persian. It is suggested that instead of eliminating or simplifying the literary works, ............. the authors should make the most appropriate choice of original literary texts, in order to familiarize Persian learners with the valuable themes of Persian literature, and to introduce the vast linguistic and artistic capacities of these works to them.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Abolghasemi, M. 2002. <em>Farsi Historical Grammar. 3<sup>rd</sup> edition.</em> Tehran: SAMT Publications. [in Persian]
Alipour, M. 1999. <em>Language structure of today's poetry</em>. Tehran: Ferdows publications. [in Persian]
Brumfit, C.& Carter, R. 2000. <em>Literature and language teaching</em>. Oxford University Press.
Farshidvard, Kh. 1969. <em>Today's Grammar. Contains New Researches in Contemporary Persian Syntax. </em>Tehran: Safi AlishahPublications. [in Persian]
Mackey, V. 1991. <em>Language teaching analysis.</em> Trans. Moridi, H. Mashhad: Publication Cultural Deputy of Astan Quds Razavi. [in Persian]
Natel-Khanlari, P. 1969. <em>History of the Persian language. Volume I.</em> Tehran: Iran Cultural Foundation Publications. [in Persian]
Saffar Moghaddam, A. 2012. Spoken and Written genres in Persian and English Languages. <em>Iranian journal of applied linguistics, </em>3 (2), 45-68. [in Persian]
Shafiee Kadkani, M. 1993. <em>Whips of spiritual journeying (Selected Sanai’s Poems). </em> Tehran: Agah publications. [in Persian]
Shamisa, S. 2011. <em>Meanings and expressions (1).</em> 18<sup>th</sup> Edition. Tehran: Payame Noor publications. [in Persian]
Zia Hosseini, M. 2007. <em>Dr. Zia Hosseini’s selected articles.</em> Tehran: Rahnama Publications. [in Persian]
در این پژوهش، با هدف شناخت تفاوتهای دو گونۀ زبانی معیار و ادبی، ابتدا براساس تحلیل مقابلهای کتابهای دستور زبان آثار ادبی با کتابهای دستور زبان معیار، تفاوتهای این دو گونه را استخراج و سپس براساس میزان فراگیر بودن آنها در آثار ادبی، تفاوتهای زبانی کمتر رایج را به شش دسته تقسیم کردیم. سپس براساس نظریه تداخل و همچنین بر مبنای پیروی از اصول علم نحو، تفاوتهای زبانی رایجتر را در سه دسته طبقهبندی نمودیم: 1. مؤلفههای گونۀ ادبی با ظاهر یکسان نسبت به زبان معیار با کارکرد متفاوت 2. مؤلفههای گونۀ ادبی با ظاهر متفاوت نسبت به زبان معیار با کارکرد یکسان 3. حذف یا جابهجایی ارکان جمله. پس از معرفی، نمونهای ادبی در 12 حوزۀ زبانی نظام آوایی، اسم، صفت، عدد، ضمیر، موصول، فعل، قید، حروف، اصوات، واژهسازی و جمله، ارائه دادیم. در پایان معلوم شد که تفاوتهای زبانی رایجتر، برای آموزش به غیرفارسیزبانان ضروریتر و در عین حال دشوارترند و گروه کمتر رایج اهمیت آموزشی کمتری دارند ولی فراگیری آنها راحتتر است.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320A Comparative Analysis of Gender Stereotypes in Children's Literature in Persian and English within the Framework of Cultural Linguisticsمقایسه کلیشههای جنسیتی در داستانهای کودکان گروه سنی «الف» و «ب» از منظر زبانشناسی فرهنگی121146385710.22124/plid.2019.12326.1336FAساجدهآنتدانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلانمحمد امینصراحیاستادیار زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلانJournal Article20190118Gender stereotypes can be considered as one of the prominent concepts in the field of socio-linguistics. These stereotypes are found at all levels of language application, including children’s literature, and play an important role in the reproduction of sexist language and patriarchal discourse. Through a descriptive- analytic method, the present study aims to investigate the aforementioned stereotypes in forty children’s stories of age groups “A” and “B” and seeks to compare the amount and the types of common stereotypes within the cultural linguistics framework as proposed by Sharifian (2016). Then, a linguistic and cultural interpretation of the stereotypes will be provided. The results of this study indicate that although the amount of gender stereotypes in children’s stories has been diminished in the past decades, patriarchal discourse is still remarkably present on the deep structure level and encodes its values and criteria through the presentation of gendered frameworks and roles in language and affects the audiences.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
Amongst all kinds of tools for raising a child and passing on the accurate norms and beliefs, children's literature is of special importance as it is associated with words and plays a crucial role in forming the child's mental image of various concepts. While this field has been subdued until the past decade, new approaches consider children’s literature in line with other literary genres bearing textual and meta-textual relations. The issue of gender and hence gender stereotypes has arisen in critique and literary theory from mid-twentieth century and is regarded as one of the fundamental categories which has tremendous impact in the process of child's socialization and subjectivity. Therefore, the present study aims to compare gender stereotypes within a total number of eighty stories in English and Persian story books of age groups A and B within the framework of cultural linguistics in order to answer the three basic questions of the study which involve the similarities and differences between the gender stereotypes used in story books of the age groups A and B in Persian and English, in addition to the linguistic interpretation of these similarities and differences in these two languages and also the cultural interpretation of the similarities and differences in these works In response to the above mentioned questions "ethnographic-conceptual text/visual analysis", a highly effective method for a comparative study, has been employed to compare both linguistic and cultural interpretation of stories in Persian and English.
<strong>2. Theoretical framework</strong>
Stories in both age groups of Persian and English are examined within the framework of Cultural Linguistics, as it is one of the branches of cognitive linguistics and studies the intersection of language, cultural and cultural conceptualizations. Cultural conceptualizations refer to the kinds of human experiences, constructed by the culture of societies and encoded in language. Many of the characteristics of human languages are embedded in cultural conceptualizations. Cultural linguistics identifies, describes and analyzes these conceptualizations in human languages (Sharifian, 2017a, P:9).
The term refers to fundamental cognitive processes including »schematization«, »categorization« and »metaphors«. In cultural linguistics, schemas are considered as building blocks of cognition that help human being organize, interpret and communicate information. There are 5 types of schemas namely event schemas, role schemas, image schemas, proposition schemas and emotion schemas. Categorization is another form of conceptualization and is the most fundamental human cognitive activity which begins early in life. Another area of language through which cultural conceptualizations encode concrete experiences is the domain of metaphor. In cognitive linguistics, this form of conceptualization is referred to as a "conceptual mapping" or "conceptual metaphor"(Sharifian, 2011, P: 23).
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
As the research is targeted on the study of 20 stories in each age group of each language, these stories were selected in a randomized manner and examined in the most suited framework of cultural linguistics through a qualitative content analysis. In order to answer the research questions, firstly cultural categories, cultural schemas, and cultural metaphors related to gender stereotypes were identified in the stories and then classified into six categories of family, personality and behavioral characteristics, occupational roles, space, toys, animals, and surreal beings. Then the size of each category in each age group and language besides their similarities and differences were compared to see if there is a meaningful difference in the number of cultural conceptualizations related to gender stereotypes in the stories of the two languages. In the next step and in response to the other two questions of the research, linguistic and cultural analysis of similarities and differences in cultural conceptualizations were presented in both textual and visual contexts.
<strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong>
The findings suggest that despite the existence of gender stereotypes in the stories of both age groups of Persian and English, the rate and the variety of these stereotypes in cultural categories and schemas in Persian stories were dramatically more than English ones both in texts and pictures. Also, the stereotypes seem to be more deeply rooted, more radical and located in concealed linguistic and cultural layers in Persian stories. English has been able to create a minimal context for gender stereotypes by creating new situations and new language; thus, children's stories in Persian require more serious efforts by the authors and cultural programmers.
<strong>5. Conclusions & Suggestions</strong>
Results of the analysis of gender stereotypes in children’s stories of Persian and English based on cultural linguistics has revealed the fact that alongside with the differences in cultural conceptualization in the two languages, there are similarities such as the »occupational role« which is the most repeated category in both languages.
The gendered structure exists in both lexical and grammatical levels of both languages and is constantly reproduced. Although there are no such things as gendered pronouns (third person singular in English) or gender markers within a word in Persian, gendered constructs generally appear in larger linguistic units. However, such constructs are still present in English, they do not have much of a conceptual impact and can be said to have been inactivated and largely lost their discriminatory gender sense.
Also, studying the conceptualizations in terms of the limitations indicated that the substructures and potentials in Persian stories were far less than the English one. Thus, the result of confluence of language, culture and thought in Persian reflects the mental, cultural and social structures that, in turn, do not allow women to emerge both personally and socially. However, the results of the efforts made in English over the years have come to be seen with a more lively and productive language.
Meanwhile, extending the scope of the present study in terms of sample size and content could be a remarkable point considering further studies as examination of children's stories in other higher age groups, moreover, expanding the scope of this comparison can be a valuable contribution to gender-based language research.
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Alvanoudi A. 2017. The interface between language and cultural conceptualization of gender in interaction: The case of Greek. In: Sharifian F. (ed) <em>Advances in Cultural Linguistics</em> (pp. 125-147). Singapore: Springer.
Browne, B.A. 2013. Gender stereotypes in advertising on children’s television in the 1990s: A cross-national analysis. <em>Journal of advertising</em>, 27(1), 83-96.
Gooden, A.M., Gooden, M.A. 2001. Gender representations in notable children’s picture books: 1995-1999. <em>Sex Roles</em>, 45(1), 45-89.
Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. 1980. <em>Metaphors we live by</em>. Chicago: University of Chicago press.
Maghsudi, S. 2004. An investigation into the role of women in <em>kid’</em>s stories. <em>Women Research,</em> 3 (2), 43-63. [in Persian]
Moeinifar, H. 2009. The representation of gender cliché in media: A case study of the yellow pages of Hamshari. <em>Cultural Research</em>, 3 (2) 3, 4-5. [in Persian]
Sharifian, F. 2009. On collective cognition and language. In H. Pishwa (ed), Language and social cognition: Expression of social mind. Berlin: Mount de Gruyter.
Sharifian, F. 2011a. An Introduction to Cultural Linguistics. Tehran: Neviseh Parsi Publications. [in Persian]
Sharifian, F. 2011b. Cultural conceptualizations and language: Theoretical framework and applications. Amesterdam: John Benjamins.
Sharifian, F. 2017. Cultural Linguistics. Amsterdam/PA: Benjamins.
کلیشههای جنسیتی را میتوان از مفاهیم برجسته در حوزۀ جامعهشناسی زبان بهشمار آورد. این کلیشهها در همۀ سطوح زبانی، ازجمله ادبیات کودک یافت میشوند و در بازتولید زبان جنسیتزده و گفتمان مردسالار نقش بهسزایی دارند. پژوهش حاضر به بررسی این کلیشهها در مجموع چهل داستان کودک در گروه سنی «الف» و «ب» پرداخته و درصدد است تا با روشی توصیفی-تحلیلی در چارچوب زبانشناسی فرهنگی میزان و نوع کلیشههای رایج در دو گروه را با یکدیگر مقایسه کند و در ادامه تفسیری زبانی و فرهنگی از این کلیشهها ارائه دهد. یافتههای پژوهش نشان میدهد که اگرچه در لایههای آشکار و روبنایی زبانی از میزان کلیشههای جنسیتی در داستانهای کودکان کاسته شدهاست لیکن گفتمان مردسالار در سطح ژرفساخت داستانهای کودکان همچنان حضوری پررنگ داشته و ارزشها و ملاکهای مربوط را از طریق ارائۀ چارچوبها و نقشهای جنسیتزده در زبان رمزگذاری کرده و به مخاطب القا میکند.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320The Role of Time Reference in Explaining the Present Subjunctive Functions in Contemporary Farsiنقش دلالت زمانی در تبیین کاربردهای حال التزامی در زبان فارسی معاصر147167402410.22124/plid.2020.14225.1392FAموناولی پوراستادیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتیشفیعنعیمایی عالیدانشآموختۀ کارشناسیارشد آموزش زبان فارسی به غیرفارسیزبانان، دانشگاه علامه طباطباییJournal Article20190825In this research, in order to find a consistent explanation for all the uses of present subjunctive in Farsi, by relying on a corpus of 3000 sentences, we managed to extract and classify all the functions of present subjunctive. We concluded that present subjunctive is used both in the simple and (relative, adverbial and complementary clauses in) compound sentences. In the simple sentences as well as the relative clauses subjunctive making elements are usually considered to be semantic. The subjunctive making elements in complementary and adverbial clauses are the main clause verb and linking word respectively. The paper also employs Comrie (1985) and Reichenbach’s (1947) tripartite distinction between speech time, event time, and reference time to show that present subjunctive has relative time. And also by choosing Darzi and Kwak (2015) approach in explaining the present subjunctive functions in complimentary clauses, we discussed its function in simple, relative and adverbial clauses in compound sentences. We concluded that reference time in simple and relative clauses is simultaneous with the speech time; such that these kinds of verbs necessarily refer to present or future. In the complementary clauses the main clause verb is considered to be the reference time of the present subjunctive verb. Reference time in the adverbial clauses, depending on the linking word, may be simultaneous with the speech time or main verb time. Whether the reference time is simultaneous with the speech time or main verb time, the subjunctive verb has got a “relative non-past time”. In the other words, compared to the reference time it refers to the future or present.
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
In linguistics, Modality is a phenomenon through which grammar allows talking about situations that are not essentially real. In other words, modality is a grammatical and semantic category which explains the speaker’s attitude regarding the proposition and generally shows realis/irrealis distinction. The right way to discover modality is to begin with some of the features of language which most obviously involve modality. In all typological studies, there is a considerable variation in the ways in which languages deal with this category. Verbal mood is one of these ways which appears in the structure of the verb. Mood is an aspect of linguistic form which indicates how a proposition is used in the expression of a modal meaning. Modal forms are divided into three categories: sentential modality, sub-sentential modality and discourse modality. Verbal mood is included within sub-sentential modality. Sub-sentential modality operates below the level of proposition expressed by a complete sentence. It includes modal adjectives, modal nouns, propositional attitude verbs (verbs which take an argument which expresses a proposition), verbal mood, and infinitives among other types. Root and subordinate clauses with different verbal moods can be used to help represent various cognitive states and mental events, such as beliefs, desires, and dreams (Portner, 2009). Among the three distinctions of declarative, subjunctive and imperative verbal mood, the current study reviews the present subjunctive uses in positive sentences.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
Reichenbach (1947) refers to three points of “speech time”, “event time” and “reference time” to determine time implications. Time has a deictic nature, and speech time is its reference point. In other words, relying on speech time, in all languages the time is divided into past, present and future. As Comrie has mentioned (1985), absolute time is a time that to determine we just need speech time and event time (as for absolute time, reference time and speech time are the same). However, this is not the case in all situations and if reference time point is defined by context or another element, we would have a Relative Time. In this study, relying on the threefold division suggested by Reichenbach and the difference between Absolute and Relative Time put by Comrie (1985), and also following the approach of Darzi and Kwak (2015) in determining subjunctive uses relying on the time implications, we review the uses of this mood in simple sentences and relative clauses and adverbial clauses of compound sentences.
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
The first step in this study was to extract and categorize all the applications of subjunctive mood in the contemporary Persian language. Thus, initially a corpus including 6 screenplays and volumes 326, 345 and 346 of <em>Movafaghiat</em> magazine were selected. Then, about 3,000 sentences were extracted in which present subjunctive was used. After that, based on the aforementioned theoretical framework, the data about the subjunctive mood were analyzed.
<strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong>
The results indicate that subjunctive present is used both in simple sentences and in relative clauses, complement clauses and adverbial clauses of compound sentences; however, the frequency of using subjunctive present in complement and adverbial clauses is much more than relative clauses and simple sentences. Simple sentences with subjunctive mood could be divided into three semantic groups: wishful, advising, and interrogative. In these sentences, “subjunctive making element” is necessarily semantic. However, in complement and adverbial clauses, respectively, the main verb and the conjunctive are subjunctive elements. Moreover, the adverbial clauses in which subjunctive verb is used, based on the semantic features of their conjunctives are divided into various groups, including adverbial clauses of time, purpose, negation, substitution, condition, etc.
<strong>5. Conclusions & Suggestions</strong>
In this research, in order to find a consistent explanation for all the uses of present subjunctive in Persian, by relying on a corpus of 3000 sentences, while considering the difference between relative time and absolute time, it was concluded that reference time in simple and relative clauses is simultaneous with the speech time; such that these kinds of verbs necessarily refer to present or future. The subjunctive making elements in complement and adverbial clauses are the main clause verb and conjunction respectively. However, the reference time in adverbial clauses, depending on the conjunction, may be equal to the speech time or time of the main verb. Whether the reference time is simultaneous with the speech time or main verb time, the subjunctive verb has got a “relative non-past time”. In other words, compared to the reference time, it refers to the future or present (non-past).
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Akhlaghi, F. 2010. “A Typological Study of Complementation in Persian”, <em>Grammar</em>, 6: 100-149. [in Persian]
Comrie, B. 1985. <em>Tense</em>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Darzi, A. & S. Kwak. 2015. "Syntax and Semantics of Subjunctive Clauses in Persian", <em>Lingua</em>, 153, 1-13.
Lazard, G. 2005. <em>A Grammar of Contemporary Persian</em>, Translated by M. Bahraini, Tehran: Hermes. [in Persian]
Portner, P. 2009. <em>Modality</em>, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Reichenbach, H. 1947. <em>Elements of Symbolic Logic</em>. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Tabibzadeh, O. 2006. <em>Verb Valency and Basic Sentences Structures in Modern Persian</em>, Tehran: Markaz. [in Persian]
Tavangar, M. & M. Amouzadeh. 2009. “Subjective Modality and Tense in Persian”, <em>Language Sciences,</em> 31: 853–873. [in Persian]در این پژوهش در جستوجوی تبیینی یکدست برای تمامی کاربردهای حال التزامی در زبان فارسی معاصر، ابتدا با اتکا به پیکرهای با حدود ۳۰۰۰ جملۀ حال التزامی، استخراج و دستهبندی شدهاست. در جملات ساده و در بندهای موصولی، عامل التزامیساز عموماً معنایی است. عامل التزامیساز در بندهای متممی و بندهای قیدی، بهترتیب فعل جملۀ اصلی و حرف ربط است. در ادامه با استفاده از رویکرد کامری و تمایز سهشقی زمان گفتار، زمان رویداد و زمان مرجع نشان دادیم که حال التزامی دارای زمان نسبی (مقابل زمان مطلق) است. همچنین با اتخاذ رویکرد درزی و کواک در تبیین کاربردهای التزامی در بندهای متممی، به بررسی کاربردهای این وجه در جملات ساده و بندهای موصولی و قیدی جملات مرکب پرداختهایم. نتیجه اینکه زمان مرجع در جملات ساده و بندهای موصولی برابر با زمان گفتار است؛ طوریکه این افعال لزوماً به حال یا آینده اشاره دارند. در بندهای متممی فعل بند اصلی، زمان مرجع فعل التزامی است. زمان مرجع در بندهای قیدی بسته به نوع حرف ربط، ممکن است برابر با زمان گفتار یا زمان فعل اصلی باشد. چه زمان مرجع، برابر با زمان گفتار باشد و چه برابر با زمان فعل اصلی باشد، در هر صورت فعل التزامی دارای «زمان نسبی غیرگذشته» است.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320Russian Loanwords in Gilaki Dialectوام واژه های روسی در گویش گیلکی169187385510.22124/plid.2019.12975.1355FAسیده مهناسیدآقایی رضاییاستادیار زبان روسی، دانشگاه مازندران0000-0002-9180-3874Journal Article20190412As a global phenomenon, loanwords are found in all languages. They could empower the target language, if being applied targetedly. Throughout the history, there have been vast linguistic relations between the Iranian province of Gilan and Russia. As a result of geographical proximity and long history of cultural, political, commercial, and military relations, many loanwords have entered the Gilaki dialect from Russian. Some of these loanwords could not be seen in the standard Persian language or other local dialects. In This paper, using Gilaki glossaries we will list Russian loanwords and will categorize them into: 1- loanwords which are not exclusive to the Gilaki dialect and could be seen in Persian language or other dialects. 2- loanwords that exclusively exist in the Gilaki dialect. Writing down the Russian equivalent for each loanword, we will also transcribe each one. Furthermore, the semantic, phonetic, and syntactic changes after transmission to the target language will be analyzed. The goal of this research is to introduce and explain the general process of word Borrowing in Gilaki. Studying the loanwords, we come to this conclusion that Borrowing mostly happens in lexical terms. The lion’s share of the loanwords is used in the everyday life of Gilak people and they rarely experience intensive semantic changes.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
As a global phenomenon, loanwords are found in all languages. They could empower the target language, if being applied targetedly. Throughout the history, there have been vast linguistic relations between the Iranian province of Gilan and Russia. As a result of geographical proximity and long history of cultural, political, commercial and military relations, many loanwords have entered the Gilaki dialect from Russian. Some of these loanwords could not be seen in the Persian standard language or other local dialects.
In this paper, using Gilaki glossaries, we will list the Russian loanwords and will categorize them into: 1) loanwords which are not exclusive to the Gilaki dialect and could be seen in Persian language or other dialects. 2) loanwords that exclusively exist in the Gilaki dialect. Writing down the Russian equivalent for each loanword, we will also transcribe it. Furthermore, the semantic, phonetic and syntactic changes after transmission to the target language will be analyzed.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>2. Theoretical framework</strong>
Borrowing means exchanging elements between two languages and can be of phonetic, lexical or syntactic features of which lexical borrowing is the most common. The reason is that words typically change and evolve more rapidly. Loanwords can be classified into four categories: 1) localized loanwords; 2) international loanwords; 3) loanwords with external characteristic; 4) strange loanwords (barbarism). Grafting is a type of borrowing in which, the foreign word does not enter the target language, but the constituent elements (root, prefix, suffix, terminal) are translated into the target language. This could be called hidden borrowing.
Borrowing can have many different extrinsic or intrinsic reasons. The close cultural, political, commercial-economic, and industrial relations are the major extrinsic reasons for borrowing. The most common type of this kind of borrowing is the entrance of a word to a language along with a new concept or phenomenon. Linguistic taboos, social aspects, and savings in the use of linguistic tools are among the linguistic reasons for borrowing.
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
In this research, based on Gilaki dialect dictionaries and also field studies, we collected Russian loanwords in Gilaki dialect and classified them into two categories. Some of the words were not specific to Gilaki dialect and were used in standard Persian or other dialects. However, others have entered the Gilaki dialect directly. An indication of direct borrowing is the lack of using these words in Persian and other dialects. In this article, we will discuss in detail the semantic, phonetic, and grammatical changes and will describe the etymological characteristics of these types of loanwords. Moreover, we will discuss the general characteristics of the borrowing process, using a descriptive - analytical method.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong>
This article refers to 49 Russian loan words, not only in the Gilaki dialect, but also in the standard Persian language and other dialects, such as Mazandarani. Investigating this group of loanwords is not the subject of this article, although there are some interesting points in the context of Gilaki dialect. So let's briefly mention these points. In most of the common Russian loanwords in Persian and Gilaki, the difference is in the semantic field. Russian loanwords in Persian have often undergone little semantic changes, but in Gilaki the meaning has changed or even the word is used in a virtual sense.
The main part of the article focuses on 26 Russian loanwords that do not exist in Persian. The words are first cited in Gilaki, then they are transcribed and their meanings are expressed in Gilaki. Subsequently, the equivalent of the words, their pronunciations and meanings are recorded in the source language. In the following, we will analyze the process of localization and absorption of the Russian word in Gilaki dialect, and their phonetic, semantic, grammatical, and stylistic changes will be discussed. Finally, based on Vasmer's dictionary, the authenticity of the word in Russian in addition to the etymology will be discussed. At the end of this section, we will mention 10 words that are not derived from the Russian language but carry Russian (Moscow) relative adjective function.
<strong>5. Conclusions & Suggestions</strong>
By studying Russian loanwords in Gilaki dialect, we can get the following results: Russian loanwords in Gilaki dialect are mostly related to different aspects of Gilak people’s livelihood, especially fishing and fishery industries. That is somehow tied to the daily life of the Gilaks. In most cases, there is no significant semantic change. In some cases, the semantic scope of the loanwords has been limited in the target language or has been applied in a virtual sense. This reflects the Gilaki speakers' worldview. Vocabulary borrowing is more common than the other types of borrowing (phonetic and grammatical), and borrowing names is the most common case. However, other types of word, such as adjectives and numbers, also entered the target language. In the Gilaki dialect, new compound words were created using the Russian loanwords. In these cases, the foreign word was combined with Persian or Gilaki words to create a new word. Some nouns used only in plural forms in Russian, lose their plural endings in the Gilaki dialect and are used in singular forms although in Russian they are never used in singular forms.
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Anvari, H. 2003. <em>Sokhan Comprehensive Dictionary</em>, Tehran: Sokhan Publications. [in Persian]
Fasmer, M. 1986-1987. <em>The etymological dictionary of the Russian language</em>, in 4 volumes. 2nd edition. Stereotypical, - M.: Progress. [in Russian]
Marashi, A. 1984. <em>Gilaki Dictionaries Glossary Including Gilaki Dictionaries and Proverbs</em>, Rasht: Tarati Publications. [in Persian]
Nozad, F. 2002. <em>Gile Gap</em>, Rasht: University of Gilan. [in Persian]
Sadeghi, A. 2005. "Russian Words in Persian". <em>Journal of Linguistics</em>, 20 (2), 3-46. [in Persian]وامگیری پدیدهای است جهانی و چنانچه کنترل شده باشد، موجب غنای زبان مقصد میشود. میان سرزمینهای گیلان و روسیه همواره روابط زبانی گستردهای وجود داشته و شاهد واژههای فراوانی هستیم که به واسطۀ همجواری و سالها روابط فرهنگی، سیاسی، نظامی، تجاری و ... از زبان روسی وارد گویش گیلکی شدند، درحالیکه نشانی از آنها در زبان فارسی معیار و دیگر گویشهای ایرانی نیست. در این مقاله، با تکیه بر واژهنامههای گیلکی فهرستی از وامواژههای روسی تهیه و آنها را در دو دسته طبقهبندی کردهایم: وامواژههای روسی مشترک در فارسی و دیگر گویشها؛ وامواژههایی که تنها وارد زبان گیلکی شدند. در مقابل هر وامواژه معادل روسی آن را ذکر و تلفظش را آوانویسی و تغییرات معنایی، آوایی و صرفی واژهها را پس از ورود به زبان مقصد بررسی میکنیم. هدف از این تحقیق معرفی و تدقیق ویژگیهای کلی روند وامگیری در گیلکی است. با بررسی وامواژهها به این نتیجه میرسیم که وامگیری غالباً از نوع واژگانی است و وامواژهها بیشتر در گسترۀ زندگی روزمرة اهالی گیلان به چشم میخورند و در اغلب موارد دچار دگرگونی شدید معنایی نشدند.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320Critical Correction and Translation of Four Ghazals of Awhadi Maraghai into Isfahan Dialect of 7th and 8th- Century A.Hتصحیح انتقادی و ترجمۀ چهار غزل اوحدی مراغهای به گویش اصفهانیِ قرن هفتم و هشتم هجری189211385410.22124/plid.2019.13112.1360FAعلیخانی حبیب آبادیدانشجوی دکتری زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه اصفهانسیدمهدینوریاناستاد زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه اصفهانمحمودبراتی خوانساریاستاد زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه اصفهانJournal Article20190427In the divan of Awhadi Maraghai, four ghazals are found in the ancient dialect of Isfahan people. The manuscripts are documented bearing some defects and modifications, such as some words which are not identical in the two different manuscripts; furthermore, the printed texts do not appear in better conditions. In 1963, Adib Toosi corrected, translated into Persian and transliterated three of these four ghazals in an article; however, his work was not flawless and in several parts of the article some defects could be characterized. Therefore, re-correcting and re-translating these three ghazals in addition to one he had not studied seems necessary. In this study, after the introduction, literature review and introducing the available manuscripts, all of the Awhadi’s dialectical ghazals were critically corrected, described, explained, and transliterated wherever it was necessary. Besides, describing and explaining the verses some defects of Adib Toosi’s article were mentioned.
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
In the divan of Awhadi Maraghai, four ghazals are found in the ancient dialect of Isfahan people. The manuscripts are documented bearing some defects and modifications, such as some words which are not even the same in the two different manuscripts; furthermore, the printed texts do not appear in better conditions. In 1963, Adib Toosi corrected, translated into Persian and transliterated three of these four ghazals in an article; however, his work was not flawless and in several parts of the article some defects could be characterized. Therefore, recorrecting and retranslating these three ghazals in addition to one he had not studied, seems necessary. In this study, these four ghazals, regarding their Isfahani dialect vocabulary, were critically corrected, described, explained, and transliterated wherever was essential. Besides, some defects of Adib Toosi’s article were mentioned.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
This research critically corrects, analyzes, and reports every verse of Awhadi’s dialectical ghazals. In the past, the people of Isfahan used to speak in one of the ancient central Iranian dialects. However, nothing has left from these ancient dialects except for a few words. Fortunately, the Isfahan Jews and some of the towns and villages around this city still speak in the same dialect, otherwise, reading and understanding the meaning of some of Awhadi Isfahanian’s verses would be much more difficult or perhaps impossible.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>3. Methodology </strong>
In this study, using several manuscripts which among them the oldest and the most authentic one was used as the main manuscript, four Isfahani ghazals have been critically corrected and translated into Persian, and their dialectical terms have been investigated and transcribed, as well as their etymology which was discovered wherever it was required. The manuscripts and texts that were used in the correction of the Awhadi's dialectical ghazals include: 1- The manuscript dated 837 A.H from Farrokh library, with four Awhadi's dialectical ghazals, and being the main manuscript for this correction. 2- The manuscript dated 870 A.H from the imperial library with four Awhadi's dialectical ghazals. 3- The manuscript dated early 11<sup>th</sup> century A.H from the Parlement library containing all of four Awhadi's dialectical ghazals. 4- The manuscript dated late 11<sup>th</sup> century A.H from the Tabriz National library containing only one ghazal out of the four. 5- The manuscript dated 13<sup>th</sup> century A.H from the Malek National Library, which contains three out of the four ghazals. 6- The published Awhadi's divan corrected by Saeid Nafisi with all the four ghazals. 7- Adib Tousi's article which corrected, translated and transliterated three out of four Awhadi's dialectical gazals, was mainly based on the manuscript dated 830 Hijri which is unavailable today. Therefore, in the correction of these three ghazals, Adib Tousi's article has been substituted the ancient manuscript dated 830 A.H As it's demonstrated in the article, despite the manuscript antiquity, it had many errors in recording these ghazals.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>4. Results and Discussion</strong>
Over the years, the many deficiencies and modification that have been made to these four dialectic ghazals, led numerous verses to become very complicated to understand even for the people who still speak these dialects. Therefore, it was necessary to correct and translate them to Persian so everyone could appreciate them. As an example, here is a verse of the Awhadi's dialectical ghazals, which was corrected, transliterated, translated, and its words were briefly explained:
bar taš dele vīst šāru ahnon
feryād keru ke del ke dāru
bar taš del=e vīst šār[1]-u ahnon[2]
on fire heart=of twenty[3]city-PRS.is-3SG now
‘Now the hearts of the people of twenty cities (or every one in the city) are on fire for her love’
Feryād ker-u ke del ke dār-u
shout PRS.do-3SG that heart who PRS.has-3SG
<strong>‘</strong>still shouts that who has a heart? (i.e., is there anybody left whom I would not set his heart on fire?)’
<strong> </strong>
<strong>5. Conclusions and Suggestions</strong>
Since these four dialectical verses have been hard to read and comprehend for most copywriters, they altered them in such a way which led to some overwhelmingly obscure and nonsense texts as they are now even difficult to read and understand for the people who still speak these dialects. Therefore, it seemed necessary to critically correct and translate the words and verses of these four dialectical ghazals. Explaining the verses, Adib Tousi's article, in which dialectical verses were corrected, translated and transliterated, was also criticized and some of its deficiencies were declared. In this study, we tried to eliminate these deficiencies with the help of ancient manuscripts.
<strong>Select Bibliography </strong>
Adib Tousi, M. 1963. Three Isfahani ghazals from Awhadi Maraghei. <em>Philosophic Research</em>, Faculty of Literature and Humanities of Tabriz University, 67, 387-400. [in Persian]
Awhadi Maragheie, A. 1961. <em>Divan</em>. correction of Saeed Nafisi. Tehran: Amirkabir. [in Persian]
Awhadi Maragheie, A. 1458. <em>Divan</em> (Manuscript). Mashhad: farrokh (Faculty of literary, Ferdowsi University). [in Persian]
Awhadi Maragheie, A. 1491. <em>Divan</em> (Manuscript). Tehran: Golestan palace library.
Awhadi Maragheie, A. (no date). <em>Divan</em> (Manuscript from early-eleventh Hijri century). Tehran: Library of Iran Parliament. [in Persian]
Awhadi Maragheie, A. (no date). <em>Divan</em> (Manuscript from late-eleventh Hijri century). Tabriz: National library. [in Persian]
Awhadi Maragheie, A. (no date). <em>Divan</em> (Manuscript from thirteenth Hijri century). Tehran: National Malek library. [in Persian]
Borjian, H. 2015. <em>Iranian dialects treasure of Isfahan province</em>. Volume 2, Tehran: Academy of Persian Language and Literature. [in Persian]
Hasandoust, M. 2010. <em>The comparative-subjective dictionary of new Iranian languages and dialects</em>. Tehran: Academi od Pesian Language and Literature. [in Persian]
Kalbasi, I. 1994. <em>dialect of Isfahan jews</em>. Tehran: Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies. [in Persian]
<br clear="all" />
[1]. Adib Tousi considered “sā” instead of “šār” and mentioned it as abbreviation for “time” and also translated it to “now”, “other”, and “then”; however, “sā” in these dialects has other meaning including, “shadow”, “hundred”, and “housing” which are not suitable for this verse.
[2]. Torfani Middle Persian: “ahanūn”; compare with, Keshe: “hátūn”; Abyaneh: “hatan”; Mahalat: “hētōn”; Naragh: “haton”; Balouchi: “hannūn”. In Adib Tousi’s article, “inen” was substituted “ahnon” and translated to “it is” that seems incorrect because in this dialect “inu” means “it is”.
[3]. also vīst could mean “every one”, because in Isfahan Jewish dialect “gešt” that is similar to »vīst «means “every one” (The conversion of "v" to "g", "s" to "š", and "ī" to "e" have a history in the evolution of language).در دیوان اوحدی مراغهای چهار غزل به گویش قدیم مردم اصفهان دیده میشود که در نسخههای خطی، کاستیها و تصرفات فراوانی بدانها راه یافتهاست، بهگونهای که گاهی برخی واژهها حتی در دو دستنویس هم یکسان نیست، و متنهای چاپی دیوان اوحدی نیز وضعیت مناسبتری ندارد. اگرچه ادیب طوسی به سال 1342 خورشیدی، سه غزل از این چهار غزل را در مقالهای تصحیح، برگردان به فارسی و آوانگاری، و تا حدی اشکالات این سه غزل را برطرف کردهاست، اما کار او نیز خالی از اشکال نیست و کاستیهایی دارد. از اینروی، تصحیح و گزارش دوبارۀ این سه غزل، و البته غزلی که وی بدان نپرداختهاست، بایسته مینماید. در این جستار، پس از مقدمه و بیانِ پیشینۀ پژوهش و معرفی نسخهها و متنهای دسترس، همۀ غزلهای گویشی اوحدی مراغهای تصحیحِ انتقادی، گزارش و در صورت لزوم حرکتگذاری یا آوانگاری گردیدهاست. نیز از برخی کاستیهای مقالۀ ادیب طوسی، در گزارش ابیات سخن رفتهاست.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320Computational Dialectometry of Phonetic Variatrtions of Taleshi in Guilan Provinceگویشسنجی رایانشیِ تنوعاتِ آوایی گویش تالشی در استان گیلان213234419010.22124/plid.2020.14995.1420FAبهروزقسمت پوردانشجوی دکتری زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه پیام نور تهرانعلیرضاقلی فامیاندانشیار زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه پیام نور تهرانسیف اللهملایی پاشاییاستادیار زبانشناسی همگانی، دانشگاه پیام نور تهرانJournal Article20191115Dialectometry is a quantitative approach to measure the differences among varying dialects using statistical measurement on a large number of linguistic features in a dialectal area. A dialect atlas, as such, displays variations of language across a geographical area. The present study employs an aggregate data analysis method as well as RuG/L04 dialectometry and cartography software to provide a perspective of phonological and lexical variation in Guilan province, Iran. The statistical population of the study includes residents of five Taleshi-speaking towns in Guilan province, i.e. Talesh, Rezvanshahr, Masal, Fuman and Shaft. Out of each town, 10 villages with more than 100 Taleshi-speaking households were selected. The selected participants were male and they were also classified in three age groups including the teen, the middle-aged and the elderly. The data were collected using Leipzig and Swadesh language questionnaires which include 65 words. The results indicated that there are similarities and differences of sound varieties in three parts of Taleshi i.e. northern, central and southern, which include varieties in alternation, consonants and vowels.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
Today, the rapid growth of mass media and new technologies have greatly affected local languages and dialects, putting them at risk of extinction. Therefore, it is possible to help preserve local languages and dialects by conducting dialectological research and registering linguistic species and variations. Dialectometry is a new trend derived from classical dialectology in which the differences and distinctions between different dialects in a region are statistically calculated, and represented using dialect maps and atlases.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
Dialectometric methods are in fact a subset of the quantitative approach, and in many cases these two terms are synonymous. Computer methods in dialectometry are called mass or aggregate analysis. It is called aggregate method because it calculates the differences between two or more variables instead of distributing individual linguistic features, and then the result of these differences is added to the total data.
The first study of dialect, which can be called dialectal geography, was carried out in 1876 by Georg Wanker in Germany. In Iran, the largest research program that has started recording and collecting linguistic and dialect data since the early fifties is a national plan called the "Linguistic Atlas of Iran". This plan was a joint action of the "Iranian Academy of Languages" and the "Geographical Organization" during which the collection of linguistic materials from the settlements of the country began. Studies about Talshi have been done by some Iranian and non-Iranian scholars. Rezayati, Naghzguy-Kohan, Sabzalipour, Sheikh Sang-e Tajan, as well as Khalili, Miller, Rees, Bazen, and Oransky, have conducted researches on the Taleshi language.
In our country, the latest work in dialectology and dialectometry is the work of Mr. Mollai Pashaye (2014) on the computational dialectology of the northern slopes of the central Alborz
which is based on the Levenstein algorithm. He studied 62 language forms from 531 speakers and from 425 sites. Sanaei (2016) has compiled a dialect atlas and dialect diversity of the northern regions of Ilam province using computer methods.
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
The method used in this research was the interview method and at least one and at most three native male speakers were interviewed to collect data from each village, and a total of 153 people were interviewed. In this research, the lexical list of Leipzig and Swadesh, which is a valid lexical list in linguistic studies, has been used. In this questionnaire, 10 categories or semantic domains were used, which includes; nature or geographical phenomena, body parts, animals, family relationships, colors, verbs, food, adjectives, pronouns, and question words.
The interviewees were in three age groups: 10 to 30, 31 to 50, and 51 to 70 years old, and the average literacy of the interviewees was diploma and they were all fluent in their native language and also Persian. The chief occupations of the people are student, farmer, businessman, self-employed and some are also employee.
Using RuG / L04 dialect software, various statistical and analytical possibilities can be obtained based on aggregate data analysis. In fact, this software provides researchers with a variety of statistical and analytical capabilities, including charts, maps and metrics. One of the most important diagrams and metrics of this software is multidimensional scaling and cluster diagrams.
<strong>4. Results & Discussion</strong>
The results showed that the speakers of Taleshi in using these categories have phonetic similarities in some cases and phonetic diversity in some other areas.
Reviewing the research data revealed that there is alternation in the pronunciation of some words. Alternation is a phenomenon whereby a morpheme has more than one form. Alternations in the research data were observed at both the consonant and vowel levels.
The data of this study also represent phonetic processes including deletion, addition, vowel harmony and epenthesis. In addition, the dialect of the settlements located in the foothills due to their geographical location, includes less phonetic variations and in contrast, the dialect of the settlements located in the plains, has more phonetic variations. These points indicate the effect of adjacent languages on the phonetic changes of the Taleshi language. Since the territory under study is located between Turkish and Gilaki languages, the influence of these two languages on some phonetic differences in neighboring areas is quite evident.
Considering all the phonetic variations, the data of this study do not show any special rules and processes that are specific to only one of the dialects of the Taleshi language, and all the processes are visible in most of the dialects.
Another point of this research is the effect of the age of the interviewed speakers on the use of their local language and dialect, that is, the older the speakers, the more they used the original native words, and in contrast among the younger speakers, mostly students, there was a greater tendency to use Persian words.
<strong>5. Conclusions & Suggestions</strong>
What was examined in this article was the phonetic variations in the research data in the Taleshi language. The results of aggregate analysis as well as diagrams and maps that are drawn based on linguistic distance and also from the study of research data show that in the areas studied in the field of research, there are phonetic similarities and differences and phonetic and lexical variations.
The data of this study do not show any special rules and processes that are specific to Taleshi language, and all the processes are visible in most of the dialects. The age of the interviewed speakers was effective in using their local language and dialect, so that the more the age of the speakers, the more the use of original local words. Among the young speakers, mainly students, there is a greater tendency to use Persian words.
<strong>Select Bibliography</strong>
Bazen, M. 1978. <em>Talesh Ethnic Regions in Northern Iran</em>. Translated by Mozaffaramin Farshchian. Astan Quds Razavi Publishing House. [in Persian]
Crystal, D. 2008. <em>A Dictionary of linguistics and Phonetics</em>. Blackwell Publishing, 6<sup>th</sup> Edition.
Hajatpour, H. 2004. <em>Talshi language, Khoshabar dialect</em>. Rasht: Gilkan Publishing. [in Persian]
Haghshenas, A. M. 2004. <em>Phonetics</em>. Tehran: Agah Publishing Institute. [in Persian].
Khalili, N. 2016. <em>Contact-Induced Cross-Dialectal Phonetic Variability in an Endangered Iranian Language: The Case of Taleshi</em>. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Colorado, Published by ProQuest LLC, Ann Arbor, MI.
Meshkatodini, M. 1998. <em>Sound Pattern of Language</em>. Mashhad: Ferdowsi. [in Persian]
Molai Pashaye, S. 2014. <em>Computational dialectology of the northern slopes of</em> <em>Central Alborz based on the Levenstein algorithm: compilation of a linguistic atlas</em>, PhD Thesis in general linguistics. Tehran: Payame Noor University. [in Persian]
Rezayati Kishekhaleh, M. 1991. <em>Description of Talshi dialect</em>. Master Thesis in Persian Language and Literature, supervised by Taghi Vahid Kamyar, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz [unpublished]. [in Persian].
Rezayati Kishekhaleh, M. 2007. <em>Taleshi language describing the central dialect</em>. Rasht: Farhang-e Ilia. [in Persian]
Zafranlo Kambozia, A. K. 2005. <em>Terminology of foundation rule based phonology</em>. SAMT publications. [in Persian]گویشسنجی، گرایشی نوین و برآمده از گویششناسی کلاسیک است که در آن تفاوتها و تمایزات گویشهای یک ناحیه به صورت آماری محاسبه و با نقشهها و اطلسهای گویشی بازنمایی میشود. در پژوهش حاضر کوشیدهایم براساس روش تحلیل انبوهۀ دادههای گویشی و با بهرهگیری از بستۀ نرمافزاری گویشسنجی و نقشهنگاری RuG/L04، چشماندازی از تنوعات آوایی زبان تالشی را ارائه دهیم. جامعۀ آماری این پژوهش ساکنان آبادیهای تالشزبان 5 شهرستان تالش، رضوانشهر، ماسال، فومن و شفت است. از هر شهرستان 10 روستایِ بالای 100 خانوار انتخاب، و روستای تالشزبان «عنبران» از شهرستان نمین استان اردبیل نیز اضافه شد و جمع روستاها به 51 رسید. از هر روستا سه گویشور در رده سنی نوجوان، میانسال و سالمند انتخاب، و با آنها مصاحبۀ حضوری انجام شد. ابزار پژوهش، از پرسشنامههای زبانی سُوادِش و لایپزیک بود که مشتمل بر 65 واژه در 10 مقولۀ واژگانی بود. نتایج پژوهش نشان داد که در تمام گونههای تالشی تشابهات و تنوعات آوایی وجود دارد که در حوزههای تناوب آوایی و تنوعات در همخوانها و واکهها بررسی گردید.<br /> دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320Word Choice: An Approach to the Personality Analysis of Qeysar Aminpourگزینش واژگانی، رهیافتی به تحلیل شخصیّت قیصر امین پور235260427510.22124/plid.2020.10638.1282FAسیده فاطمهنیک گهردانشجوی دکتری زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه مازندرانعلی اکبرباقری خلیلیاستاد زبان و ادبیّات فارسی، دانشگاه مازندرانhttps://orcid.org/00Journal Article20180615The choice of words and the representation of their structure and function are of great significance in linguistics. Based on the two principles of selection and collocation, each word finds unique linguistic-semantic features and conceptual-cognitive actions; and readers can understand both the text and the writer via their knowledge of the words. This study analyzes linguistic-semantic features and conceptual-cognitive actions of the words employed in Qeysar Aminpour’s poetry and views them as a personal representation of the poet based on Daniel Nettle’s table of five personality patterns. The results of the study show that Qeysar’s personality is multifaceted. In his <em>Breathing the Morning</em>, he is an extrovert due to such features as passion, excitement, and sociability. In <em>Sudden Mirrors</em>, he becomes prudent because of his perfectionism, mental organization, goal-orientedness, and social interactions. In <em>Flowers Are All Sunflowers</em>, he turns into an open-minded figure following his imagination, creativity, belief in the supernatural, and mystical and artistic tendencies. And in <em>The Grammar of Love</em>, traits like aversion to social pains, kindness and lovingness, and attraction to morality makes him introvert and compliant.
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
With the advent of cognitive science into linguistics, the importance of text has given way to an approach that seeks the meaning of a phrase in the background knowledge network in mind and language, prefers semantic flexibility to one-dimensional meaning and knows the word as a unit of thought. In this regard, psychologists believe that the frequency and word choice of each poet reflects the dimensions of his personality. Attention in this field is necessary in literature research, and the works of Qeysar Aminpour can be studied from this perspective. The scope of this research is the word in Aminpour's poems with the aim of recognizing his thought and personality, and the research question is: What kind of personality is determined by analysis on word choice of Qeysar Aminpour's poems?
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
<strong>2-1. The Relationship between Language and Personality</strong>
With the development of cognitive sciences, sensory experiences nature has been changed to the conceptual and mental process, and a connection was made between the structure of language and the mind, and it was said that personality is the specific patterns of thinking and behavior that determine one's way of interacting with the world. Language, as a symbol of thought, is an emerging linguistic personality.
<strong>2-2. Types of Personality</strong>
Personality makes sense based on the role the individual plays in society. Galton's model of personality is appropriate for the study of personality in the literature fields, and Daniel Natel presents a table of big five dimensions of personality based on language in the evolution of Galton's theory.
Table 1- Big Five Personality Dimensions of Daniel Natel.
Personality Trait
Low Score
High Score
Extroverted
Isolated, silent, seeking peace
Sociable, good mixer, passionate, easy-going, active, outdoorsman, outgoing, emotional
Neurosis
Constant in excitement and emotions, thoughtful, empathetic, happy
Prone to stress, terrified, full of guilt, sad, obsessive, shy, multiple and short-lived marriages
Forethoughtful
Spontaneous, inattentive, careless
Organized, self-governing, subject to rules, perfectionist, with the power to organize, disturbed by changes, purposeful, adherent, efficient
Compatible
Militant, distrustful, anti-social, self-centered, incapable of lovemaking
Reliable, empathetic, disgusted with assault, using kind and relaxing words, helpful, balanced, patient, generous, family-friendly, fascinated by moral virtues
Open-minded
Realistic, practical, conventional
Creative, strong imagination, mysterious, disgusted with traditions, opposed to institutions of power, believe in supernatural, interested in artistic pursuits
<strong>2-3. Cognitive Ability of Words: </strong>The basic principles of cognitive semantics of words are:
<strong>2-3-1. Semantic-linguistic characteristics</strong>: The most important characteristics of each word in terms of implication and semantic characteristics are: 1) Words markedness, 2) Objective and subjective words, 3) General and specific words, 4) Explicit and implicit words/meanings.
<strong>2-3-2. Conceptual-cognitive actions</strong>: The semantic system based on cognitive approaches are: 1) Archetype theory: which is based on categorization and acts as a mental dictionary and our ontological support and pays attention to perceptual, motor, role-playing and purposeful aspects of phenomena, 2) Encyclopedia of meaning which is the cognitive reserve of a person. That is, one understands a phenomenon based on experience and in a completely conceptual way.
<strong>3. Methodology</strong>
The method of this research is descriptive-analytical and the units of the analysis are the words in the poems of Qeysar Aminpour and the data analysis is based on the table of big five personality traits of Daniel Natel in order to analyze the poetic character of Aminpour.
<strong>4. Research Results and Discussion</strong>
<strong>4-1 </strong><strong>. Semantic-linguistic Characteristics of Words</strong>
<strong>(1) </strong><strong>Words’ Markedness</strong>: Marked words in "The Morning Breath" are divided into three categories based on the implicit meanings and ideological system of the poet: 1) war 2) religion 3) nature, and most of them are idealistic. Markedness in "The Sudden Mirrors" is based on the realities of social life and has three categories: 1) emotional 2) religious 3) social. "Flowers are all sunflowers" is also in the same three categories. The difference is that in the field of religious words, the poet emphasizes the behavioral and empirical dimension instead of the belief dimension, and in the field of social words, he chooses two distinct types of words: 1) citizenship rights and machine life, and 2) Mysticism tendencies. The markedness of words in “The Grammar of Love" is similar to the last two sets, but the predominant aspect is emotional markedness.
<strong>(2) Objective and subjective words</strong>: The use of objective words makes Qeysar's poems emotional and visual, and reflects his subjective words, philosophical and ontological thoughts.
<strong>(3) General and specific words</strong>: Most of the words in Qeysar's poems are general and indicate generality and originality and are related to his ideology. Specific nouns are less used and the poet uses them to testify his claims and in line with the discourse of the text.
<strong>(4) Explicit and implicit words/meanings</strong>: Explicit meanings, lexical meanings and implicit meanings depend on special situations and are based on emotional and social aspects, and Qeysar uses the implicit meanings from most of the words.
<strong>4-2 </strong><strong>.Conceptual-Cognitive Action of Words</strong>
<strong>(1) Archetype</strong>: Qeysar conceptualizes the phenomena naturally and based on experience, and categorizes them through a set of intrinsic features. His view of about two-thirds of the words is role-playing, perceptual, and emotion-based. Qeysar's dynamic view point is mostly seen in ideological terms, and his purposeful view is immaterial and based on compassion.
<strong>(2) Encyclopedic words</strong>: From an epistemological point of view, in Qeysar's word choice, life follows a vague, unsuccessful, polluted, forced and doubtful path, and although time and life do not act according to his ideals, he shows compatibility and patience to give meaning to life and time with love and poetry.
<strong>5. Conclusion</strong>
Qeysar’s personality is extroverted in “The Morning Breath” due to the predominance of ideological words and traits such being a good mixer, passion, indefatigability, and excitement; But in “The Sudden Mirrors”, according to social and human ideals and the characteristics of perfectionism, mental organization, purposefulness, and variability, the forethoughtful personality is seen. In “Flowers are all sunflowers”, because of the choice of general words and creativity, imagination, pain, critical views, mystical and artistic tendencies, he has an open mind and his character in “The Grammar of Love”, is introverted and consistent due to regret, sorrow and frustrations and characteristics of trustworthiness, lovemaking, helpfulness, patience, family-loving, and moral virtues, and the most prominent dimension of Qeysar's personality among all these dimensions is his compatible personality.
<strong>Select Bibliography</strong>
Albertazzi, L. 2006. “Which Semantics?”,<em> in </em>Albertazzi, Liliana(ed.),<em> Meaning and cognition.</em> Amsterdam Philadelphia: John Benjamin, Publishing company.
Aminpour, Q. 2010. <em>Full Collection of Poems</em>. Tehran: Morvarid. [in Persian]
Aminpour, Q. 2014<em>. Full Collection of Poems</em>. Tehran: Morvarid. [in Persian]
Evans, V. & M. Green. 2006. <em>An introduction to cognitive linguistics</em>. Edinburgh University Press.
Fotouhi, M. 2013. <em>Stylistics of theories, approaches and methods</em>. Tehran: Sokhan. [in Persian]
Lakoff J. and Johnson, M. 2016. <em>The metaphors we live</em> by. Tranlation by: Agha Ebrahimi, H. Tehran: Elm. [in Persian]
Natel, D. 2014<em>. Recognizing Personality Types</em>. Translation by: Shekholeslam, A. Tehran: Atayi. [in Persian]
Safavi, K. 2007. <em>Introduction to Semantics</em>. Tehran: Pezhvak Keyhan.
Yarmohammadi, L. 2004. <em>Common and Critical Discourse</em>. Tehran: Hermes. [in Persian]
Shamlou, A. 2009. <em>Schools and Theories in Personality Psychology</em>. Tehran: Roshd. [in Persian]
هر واژه با تکیه بر دو اصل گزینش و ترکیب، مشخصههای معنایی-زبانی و کنشهای مفهومی-شناختی ویژهای مییابد و خواننده با شناخت واژهها علاوهبر دریافت متن، شاعر را نیز میشناسد. در مقالة حاضر مشخصههای معنایی-زبانی و کنشهای مفهومی-شناختی واژهها در اشعار قیصر امینپور بهعنوان یکی از نمودهای شخصیّتی با تکیه بر جدول تیپهای پنجگانة دانیل ناتل بررسی شد و براساس نتایچ تحقیق، شخصیّت قیصر در اشعارش چند بُعدی است. او در <em>تنفس صبح</em> به سبب ویژگیهایی چون زودجوشی، پرشوری، هیجانی، شخصیّت برونگرا دارد. در <em>آینههای ناگهان</em> به خاطر کمالگرایی، سازمانیافتگی ذهنی، هدفمندی و واکنشهای اجتماعی، شخصیّت دوراندیش دارد. در <em>گلها همه آفتابگردانند</em>، خلاقیت، تخیّل قوی، اعتقاد به ماوراءالطبیعه، علاقهمندی به گرایشهای عرفانی و هنری او را واجد شخصیّت گشودهذهن کرده و ویژگیهای بیزاری از رنجهای اجتماعی، عشقورزی و مهربانی، شکیبایی، شیفتگی به فضایل اخلاقی در <em>دستور زبان عشق</em>، شخصیّت او را <em>درونگرا و سازگار</em> نمودهاست.دانشگاه گیلانزبان فارسی و گویشهای ایرانی2476-65855120200320A Historical Analysis of Past Stems in Balochi (Western Dialects)بررسی تاریخی بن ماضی افعال در زبان بلوچیِ امروز (گویش های بلوچیِ غربی)261273385910.22124/plid.2019.13660.1375FAشیماءجعفری دهقیاستادیار فرهنگ و زبانهای باستانی ایران، دانشگاه ولایت ایرانشهر سیستان و بلوچستانسعیددامنیاستادیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه ولایت ایرانشهر سیستان و بلوچستانJournal Article20190624The past stem with its varied forms in different dialects of Balochi, like other Iranian languages which are inflected languages, has special value in morphology, grammar, and standardization etc. In this article the authors describe the morphological structures of past stems in Balochi using a diachronic-synchronic method. The basic sources for gathering data are the collection of 201 simple verbs of Bampuri dialect which is a western dialect of Baluchi. The verbs are arranged according to the morphemes used for representing past stems. The findings show that past stem in the Bampuri dialect of Balochi, with its varied uses, is represented in ten distinguished forms. Among them, five are regular and five others irregular. In addition, the structural differences are due to the four following factors: 1- historical remnants from Iranian languages, 2- morphological contexts, 3-dialectical differences, 4- analogy with other verbs.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>1. Introduction</strong>
Balochi is one of the Northwestern Iranian languages and a descendant of Indo-Iranian and Indo-European language family. It also has some features of the Eastern Iranian languages. Scholars generally consider two major dialects for Balochi, namely Eastern and Western dialects. Today, Western Balochi covers most of the Balochi language and by the name of Balochi, mostly Sarhadi and Makkorani dialects are intended. It is noteworthy that the Balochi mentioned in this article, is more related to Western Balochi dialect in Iran’s geographical area. Speakers of this language are now mainly living in parts of southwest of Pakistan, southeast of Iran in Sistan and Balochistan province and are scattered in several other provinces in Iran, in the southern part of Afghanistan and some countries around Persian Gulf. Smaller groups of Balochi speakers live as dispersed tribes or families in Marv in Turkmenistan and in some African and European countries. This article declines in a descriptive manner and diachronic-synchronic view on the morphological structures of past stems in Balochi language. Since the Eastern dialect shows significant differences in this respect from the western dialects, it has been refrained from addressing the Eastern dialects to make the discussion more specific.
<strong>2. Theoretical Framework</strong>
The present stem in Balochi is the same as the verb root. In other words, the root without any derivation is the present stem. This can be illustrated as follows:
root + zero derivation > present stem
For the past stem in Balochi, the suffix for past stem is added to the root of the verb. In this case, it is possible for the root to remain unchanged (for regular verbs) or some phonemic changes may occur (for irregular verbs).
The process for making past stem of regular and irregular verbs in Balochi is as follows:
1. regular verbs: root + (-ât, -et, -t) > past stem
2. irregular verbs: different morphological changes with some transformation in the root > past stem
<strong> </strong>
<strong>3. Methodology </strong>
There are ten different forms for past stem construction in Balochi and here, for each one, up to five examples are given according to the frequency of usage. After that, phonetic changes are studied both synchronically and diachronically. The number of verbs studied in this paper is a total of 210. These verbs are classified according to the endings they have for forming past stem. The past and present stems for all these verbs are checked with <em>Balochi- Persian Dictionary</em>.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>4. Result & Discussion </strong>
The past stem of the verb in Balochi is formed based on the verbs root. The root in ancient Iranian languages is changed in ablaut forms, bearing three different gradation of the vowel (zero, short and long) in the root. This system has remained in Balochi. In addition, the past stem is formed with the phoneme /t/ which is also presented as /et/ and / ât/. This is the phoneme /t/ in Middle Persian and New Persian which has four forms such as /t/, /d/, /îd/, /âd/. The findings of the present study show that there are ten forms for forming past stem in Balochi. Five of these forms are regular while five forms are irregular. The reason for the differences between these forms are: 1. The past stem is the same as the historical past stems, 2. The phonological context of the past stem may cause the differences, 3. The differences between the dialects of Balochi, 4. The past stem is formed by analogy with other stems.
<strong>5. Conclusions and Suggestions</strong>
The results of the present study show that since the past stem, whether regular or irregular, is used for forming infinitives, past participles, nouns and compounds in Balochi, it is an important part of this language. The main mark for past stem in Balochi is the morpheme /t/ which is represented by three different allomorphs namely /t/, /et/ and /ât/ and seems to be similar to the Middle Persian and New Persian /t/, /d/, /îd/, /âd/. Following the methodology outline in this paper, there are ten different forms for past stem construction in Balochi (five regular forms while five irregular forms). The most regular and frequent is the second form which is the regular past stem form in Balochi. Therefore, we can predict that if any of the irregular verbs have a tendency to become regular, or new verbs are coined in Balochi, they will adapt themselves to the second type of stem formation according to the principle of analogy. There are two main reasons for the differences between past stem formations in Balochi, one are the historical changes of the sounds and second is the analogy with other verbs. The outcome of such factors is the difference in the dialects of Balochi which then makes the standardization of this language more difficult.
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