دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Directionization in Persian: A Case Study of Body-Part Terms Based on Grammaticalization «جهت‌شدگی» در فارسی: مطالعۀ موردی «اندام واژه‌ها» بر اساس دستوری‌شدگی 7 30 5043 10.22124/plid.2021.19742.1536 FA شکوفه جعفری دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی دانشگاه آزاداسلامی واحد شاهرود، ایران. شادی داوری دانش‌آموختة دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، مدرس دانشگاه علوم پزشکی تهران، ایران. رویا صدیق ضیابری استادیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد شاهرود، ایران. Journal Article 2021 05 31 Language structure is the product of our interaction with the world around us. The way we build discourses and develop linguistic categories can be derived from the way we experience our environment. Language encodes some points of spatial orientations which are abstract concepts such as “up”, “down”, “front”, “back” and the like by means of concrete domains e.g. “body-parts”, “landmarks”, and “verbs”. In this research, the process of changing these objective sources into spatial orientation is called “directionization”. The present study investigates directionization in Persian based on Heine's (1997) approach, and Davari and Naghzguy- Kohan's (2017a, b) model which is used to determine the dimensions of directionization, or the extent of semantic, morpho-syntactic and phonetic changes of the sources. The data were gathered from poetry and prose books, proverbs, novels, dictionaries, elementary and high school Persian textbooks, websites, and daily and television conversations. Time span includes Early New Persian (4th-13th century) and New Persian (13th century- today). Data analysis indicates that Persian uses body-parts such as head, foot, eye, heart and the like for expressing relative and metaphorical directions. Through this process, mentioned lexical sources have undergone the second degree of grammaticalization. 1. Introduction Language is the main shaper of our mental activities. Language structure reflects patterns of human conceptualization because it is shaped by them. According to Heine (1997) language structure is the product of our interaction with the world around us. The way we build discourses and develop linguistic categories can be derived from the way we experience our environment. A common human strategy of communication is describing one in terms of another. Heine (1997) believes that speakers conceptualize the abstract concepts of spatial orientation based on concrete sources such as landmarks, body- parts and certain verbs for creating language forms which deal with all kinds of directions. Therefore, these objective sources are grammaticalized in order to express orientation concepts and they do not imply their main concepts anymore. Since the target of this process is expressing the concept of “orientation”, in this research, we call this process “directionization” 2. Theoretical Framework Grammaticalization is regarded as a process in which a lexical item changes into a grammatical one. According to Hine (1997), there are three main source domains for the expression of the reference points of spatial orientation. Body-parts are the most important source domain and in addition to the human body, bodies of animals may also serve as a reference domain. Next to body-parts, there are environmental landmarks or, in short, simply landmarks. Much less commonly, another source for spatial points of orientation may include dynamic concepts, concepts typically expressed by motion verbs. Such items turn from open-class categories into closed-class categories for expressing concepts of spatial orientation. They lose in lexical meaning and acquire grammatical meaning. Hine (1997) has also explained the two following basic systems of spatial orientation or reference: (a) Deictic orientation which is speaker-deictic, that is, the spatial orientation is described with reference to the location and perspective assumed by the speaker. (b) Cardinal orientation, which includes items independent of the position assumed by the speaker, the hearer, or a particular object. The concepts figuring in this domain are “north”, “south”, “east”, and “west”. The present contribution has also used Davari and Naghzgouy- Kohan's (2017a, b) model to determine the dimensions of directionization, or the extent of semantic, morpho-syntactic and phonetic changes of the sources. 3. Methodology The present contribution is mainly a descriptive research. Following Heine (1997), this research employs the framework of grammaticalization to explain the process of creating orientation terms through objective sources like body-parts, landmarks and dynamic concepts. Furthermore, in order to determine the degree of grammaticalization of body-part terms, this research adopts Davari and Naghzguy-Kohan`s (2017) model of Grammaticalization Dimensions. The research data were gathered from poetry and prose books, proverbs, novels, newspapers, dictionaries, elementary and high school Persian textbooks, websites, and daily and television conversations. Time span includes Early New Persian (4th -13th century) and New Persian (13th century-today). Studying 3500 pages, 112 sentences consisting body-part terms were extracted, and consequently 30 orientation terms were derived. Finally, the degree of grammaticalization of all body part terms was tabulated and final results were presented. 4. Result & Discussion The human body provides the most important model for expressing concepts of spatial orientation. There are other models—notably the zoomorphic model, which takes the bodies of animals as a structural template for spatial orientation. In this research, the process of changing these objective sources into spatial orientation is called “directionization”. The present study investigates directionization in Persian based on Heine's (1997) approach. Data analysis showed that Persian language uses 30 body- parts such as head, foot, eye, heart and the like to conceptualize directional concepts. While Heine (1997) had not mentioned the metaphorical direction, the results of the present study portrayed that in addition to 25 body- parts which refer to the relative directions, 5 body- parts encode metaphorical directions. This indicates that directionization process is highly productive in Persian in contrast to other languages. 5. Conclusion and Suggestions According to Heine (1997), languages encode certain points of spatial orientations which are considered as abstract concepts through particular concrete source domains e.g. environmental landmarks, body-parts and certain verbs. In this research, we showed the most common body- parts in Persian which are grammaticahized to express orientation concepts. The results indicated that Persian uses body-parts such as head, foot, eye, heart and the like for expressing relative, and metaphorical directions. To determine the dimensions of directionization, or the extent of semantic, morpho-syntactic and phonetic changes of the sources, Davari and Naghzgouy- Kohan's (2017a, b) model was applied. Through the process of directionization, the aforesaid objective sources bear the first and second degrees of grammaticalization due to the lexical and morphosyntactic changes. Moreover, it was argued that encoding abstract directions, Persian body-parts do not portray the third degree of grammaticalization since they do not bear phonological changes. Select Bibliography Abdi, I., & Naghzguy-Kohan, M. 2018. Spatial Orientation in Persian. Elm-e Zaban, 6 (9), 119- 148. [in Persian] Brugman, C. 1983. The use of body-part terms as locatives in Chalcatongo Mixtec. Survey of Californian and Other Indian Languages 4, 90-235. Davari, Sh., & Naghzguy-Kohan, M. 2017 a. Auxiliary Verbs in Persian: A Grammaticalization Account. Tehran: Neveeseh- Parsi Publication. [in Persian] Davari, Sh., & Naghzguy-Kohan, M. 2017 b. The grammaticalization of progressive aspect in Persian. In: The Grammaticalization of Tense, Aspect, Modality and Evidentiality: A Functional Perspective. Hengeveld, Kees, Narrog, Heiko, Olbertz, Hella (Eds). Series: Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Heine, B. 1997. Cognitive Foundation of Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Heine, B., U. Claudi, and Hunnemey, F. 1991. Grammaticalization: A conceptual Framework. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Hopper, P. & Traugott, E. 2003. Grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphor We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Moussavi, M. 2001. A verified dictionary of Farsi proverbs and their English equivalents. Tehran: Jahan- e rayaneh Publication. [in Persian] Svorou, S. 1994. Grammar of Space. (Typological studies in language, 25). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. براساس نظر هاینه گویشوران زبان با استفاده از منابع عینی مانند اندام‌واژه‌ها، طبیعتواژهها و برخی افعال به رمزگذاری مفاهیم جهتی مانند بالا، پایین، جلو، عقب و ... می‌پردازند. در این پژوهش، فرایند تحول منابع واژگانی به واژگانی که به مفاهیم جهتی دلالت دارند، جهتشدگی نامیده میشود. پژوهش حاضر به چگونگی رمزگذاری جهتهای نسبی و استعاری با استفاده از منبع واژگانی اندام‌واژهها و براساس آرای هاینه پرداخته‌است. برای تعیین ابعاد جهتشدگی، یا میزان تحولات معنایی، تصریفی- نحوی و آوایی منابع واژگانی به مقاصد جهتی، مطالعۀ حاضر از انگارۀ داوری و نغزگوی کهن بهره جستهاست. برای جمع آوری دادهها نیز از کتب نظم و نثر، ضربالمثل، رمان، فرهنگهای واژگان، کتب فارسی ابتدایی و متوسطه، تارنماها و گفتوگوهای تلویزیونی و روزمره استفاده شدهاست. بازۀ زمانی دادهها شامل دادههای فارسی نو متقدم (قرن 4 تا 13هجری) و فارسی نو امروز (قرن 13 تا امروز) است. نتایج نشان می‌دهد زبان فارسی از اندامواژههای سر، پا، چشم، قلب و ... برای بیان جهتهای نسبی و استعاری استفاده نموده و در نهایت این منابع واژگانی متحمل درجۀ دوم جهت‌شدگی گردیدهاند

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Non-verbal Endocentric Compounds in Alashtari Laki ترکیب‌ درون‌مرکز غیرفعلی در لکی الشتری 31 52 5167 10.22124/plid.2021.20330.1547 FA فرانک نادری دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد کرمانشاه، کرمانشاه، ایران ابراهیم بدخشان دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی دانشگاه کردستان، سنندج، ایران اکرم کرانی استادیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد کرمانشاه، کرمانشاه، ایران Journal Article 2021 08 09 The present article aims to investigate the non-verbal endocentric compounds in Laki language. The research data include endocentric compounds collected from two sources: the daily speech of Laki speakers by the researcher and the two-volume book of ‘Laki Dictionary’ (Kiyani Kolivand, 2011). The results of the research show that the most frequent structures of non-verbal endocentric compounds in Laki include [noun + noun], [noun + adjective] and [adjective + noun]. In addition to these structures, there are three subsidiary low frequency structures in this language: [noun + preposition], [preposition + noun] and [number + noun]. The semantic analysis of the structures above shows that the diversity of relations between components of compounds results in various interpretations, among which the semantic diversity of [noun + noun] compounds is by far more than other endocentric compounds. The [noun + noun] endocentric compounds are classified into two categories, head-initial and head-final, in which numerous concepts are found: source, content, usage, similarity, material, place, dependency, amalgamation, time, specialty, type, nutrition, manner, and purpose. The [noun + adjective] endocentric compounds also have considerable semantic diversity and different meanings are found, including performance, an instrument of production, content, relation, features, and special relationship. 1.Introduction Compounding is one of the main word-formation processes found in most languages of the world. In this process, two words are mixed together and a compound word is formed, which can have considerable variety in terms of components and meaning. Compounding has different types, and one of the most important types is the endocentric compound, which has a semantic head, and the whole meaning of the inclusive compounding is the meaning of its head. The aim of the recent research is to investigate the nonverbal endocentric compounds in the Alshtari species of the Laki language. Laki language belongs to the northwest branch of Iranian languages, which is spoken in the northern and northwestern regions of Lorestan province, in parts of Khorramabad, as well as in parts of Kermanshah, Ilam and Hamedan provinces (Dabir -Moghaddam, 2014: 862). Laki language has several varieties one of which is common in Alshtar city, the center of Selseleh city in Lorestan province known as Laki Alshtari. Nonverbal endocentric compounds refer to those endocentric compounds that do not have a verbal stem in their structure. 2.Theoretical framework Adams (2001) deals with the semantic classification of compounds, especially the compounds [noun + noun] in English. He offers the following classification of endocentric nouns (2001: 83-84). Usage: ignition key Function: air gun Location: amusement park Origin: field mouse Cause 1: influenza virus Cause 2: sex discrimination Source: honey bee Possession: minority rights Content: fruit cake Resemblance: box kite 3.Methodology Research data include endocentric compound words obtained from two sources, one is the everyday speech of Laki speakers in the family, workplace and community around the researcher and the other is the two-volume book "Laki Culture and Glossary" (Kiani Kolivand, 2011). Since one of the present authors speaks Laki she also used his linguistic intuition to validate the data. The present research is conducted within the framework of Adams (2001) and its main questions are: 1) What are the endocentric compounds of the Laki language in terms of morphological structure? 2) What are the semantic relationships between the components of these compounds? 4.Results & Discussions The analysis of endocentric compound words in Laki language shows that these types of compounds are structurally and semantically very diverse and they can be structurally divided into three main categories [noun + noun], [noun + adjective] and [adjective + noun]. In addition to these structures, three other structures including [preposition + noun], [noun + preposition] and [number + noun] can also be seen in this type of compounds. The nature of the relationship between the components of the compounds leads to the emergence of a range of meanings in them, and based on this semantic relationship, endocentric compounds can be classified. The findings of the recent research indicate that the semantic diversity of [noun + noun] compounds is far greater than other endocentric compounds. Endocentric compounds [noun + noun] are divided into two subcategories, the headfirst and the head last, and are found several concepts within them namely: origin, content, application, similarity, sex, place, dependence, impregnation, time, allocation, type, nutrition, method and purpose. The internal structure [noun + adjective] is also semantically varied, and several meanings including mode of operation, means of production, content, ratio, specificity and specific relation, can be found in these combinations. Some of these semantic relationships have not been found in previous related research on languages such as English and German. Also, the presence of the structures like [preposition + preposition], [noun + preposition] and [number + noun] although at very low frequencies, indicates that the endocentric compounds of Laki is also structurally varied and that structures in this Language can be found in fewer languages. 5.Conclusions & Suggestions One of the important results of the present research is that some semantic relationships that have been identified between the components of the compound [noun + noun] in Laki language have not been found in the study of Adams (2001) and Costello and Kane (2000). These semantic relationships include allocation, component, method, time, nutrition, and impregnation. In Laki [noun + adjective] compounds, some semantic relationships such as mode of operation, production tools and contents have been obtained which have not been mentioned in the few researches done on this type of compounds such as Appah (2016). In this regard, it can be said that the present study has taken a small step towards completing and expanding the semantic classification of nonverbal endocentric compounds. The results of this study show that some of the semantic classifications proposed for noun-noun compounds, such as the Castello and Kane (2000) classifications, are very general and cannot represent the detailed semantic relationships between the components of the compound. Therefore, the semantic diversity of endocentric compounds, noun-noun compounds in Laki, which is the result of the various semantic relationships between the components of these compounds, cannot be analyzed within the framework of this classification. Because most of these relationships, such as origin, content, application, type, assignment, time, etc., fall into the category of "relationship" interpretation, and as a result, conceptual differences between them remain unknown. Select Bibliography Adams, V. 1973. An introduction to modern English word formation. London: Longman. Adams, V. 2001. Complex words in English. Harlow: Pearson. Appah, C.K.I. 2016. Noun-adjective compounds in akan. Lingue e linguaggio, XV(2), 259-284. Assi, m. & Badakhshan, E., 2010. Classification of Compound words, Persian language and literature Quarterly, PP. 71-94. [in Persian] Azadpour, R. 2013. Laki dialect: phonology, grammar, vocabulary. Qom: Noor Publishing House. [in Persian] Azizi, Z. 2015. Investigation of word formation processes in Laki dialect based on reproductive theory. Master Thesis in Linguistics, Kurdistan University, Sanandaj. [in Persian] Bauer, L. 2017. Compounds and Compounding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Benczes, R. 2006. Creative compounding in English: The semantics of metaphorical and metonymical noun-noun combinations. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Bisetto, A. & Scalise, S. 2005. The Classification of Compounds. Lingue E Linguaggio, 4(2), 319-332. Kiani Kolivand, K. 2011. Laki Culture and Dictionary (Kian Culture). Two volumes. Khorramabad: Sifa Publications. [in Persian] پرتکرارترین ساختارهایی که در ترکیب‌های درون‌مرکز غیرفعلی در زبان لکی یافت می‌شوند عبارت‌اند از: [اسم + اسم]، [اسم + صفت] و [صفت + اسم]. علاوه‌بر اینها، سه ساختار کم‌بسامدتر [اسم + حرف اضافه]، [حرف اضافه + اسم] و [عدد + اسم] نیز در این زبان یافت می‌شود. تحلیل معنایی این ساختارها نشان می‌دهد که برحسب نوع رابطۀ بین اجزای سازندۀ ترکیب، معانی متنوعی از آنها استنباط می‌شود و تنوع معنایی ترکیب‌های [اسم + اسم] بیش از سایر ترکیب‌های درون‌مرکز است. ترکیب‌های درون‌مرکز [اسم + اسم] به دو زیرطبقۀ هسته‌آغاز و هسته‌پایان تقسیم می‌شوند و در آنها مفاهیم متعددی را می‌توان یافت که عبارت‌اند از: منشأ، محتوا، کاربرد، شباهت، جنس، محل، وابستگی، آغشتگی، زمان، اختصاص، نوع، تغذیه، شیوه و هدف. ترکیب‌های درون‌مرکز [اسم + صفت] نیز از لحاظ معنایی تنوع قابل توجهی دارند و معانی متعددی شامل نحوۀ عملکرد، ابزار تولید، محتوا، نسبت، خصوصیت و ارتباط خاص در این نوع ترکیب‌ها یافت می‌شود.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Humorous Grammatical Innovations in Contemporary Persian Press نوآوری‌های دستوری طنزآمیز در مطبوعات معاصر از دیدگاه دستور کاربردبنیاد 53 75 4947 10.22124/plid.2021.17626.1483 FA زهرا معین نجف آبادی کارشناس ارشد زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. والی رضایی دانشیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران Journal Article 2020 09 10 This paper attempts to examine humorous grammatical innovations in contemporary Persian press in recent years within the framework of Bybee’s language change theory (2015) in accordance with the usage-based approach to grammer. In this regard, by collecting data from satirical press, this research endeavored to understand how and by which process these innovations have been produced, in which constructions they have been used and what characteristics they have. To this end, the humorous grammatical innovations have been classified in three categories consisting of derivatives constructions, fabricated verbs and constructions with “al-“. In this research, we demonstrate that a high number of innovations have been created on the basis of analogical processes. Furthermore the findings suggest that seemingly most of the innovations have the potentiality to enter the formal language but evidently the language enclines to absorb the innovations which have been coined by virtue of the language exigency or the deficits of applicable grammatical constructions. 1. Introduction When linguistic innovations take place in one language, they may seem humorous to many speakers at first because they are unprecedented. Nevertheless, over a short period of time, some of these humorous innovations enter the standard language due to the linguistic and communication needs, so that it may seem difficult to imagine that at one time these innovations were merely used to create humor and jokes. This study, by examining a number of humorous grammatical innovations used in the press, tries to find out why and through what mechanisms these innovations have been made in contemporary Persian.It also attempts to explore the characteristics of these innovations. 2. Theoretical framework Bybee’s work greatly inspired the creation of usage-based models of language. Bybee’s model makes predictions about and explains synchronic, diachronic and typological patterns within languages, such as: which variants will occur in which contexts? what forms they will take, and what would be their diachronic consequences. Bybee proves that even irreducibly irregular word-forms are seen to be non-arbitrary when the context it occurs in is taken into consideration in the very representation of morphology. Simultaneously, she shows that even seemingly regular allomorphy is context-sensitive. Splits also aligns with the idea that linguistic forms cannot be studied as isolated entities, but rather in relation to the strength of their attachment to other entities. 3. Methodology This research is a data based study attempting to select, classify and analyze data from various sources in the field of grammatical innovations of stire in Persian language. The main newspaper used in this research is the humorous pages of "Qanoon" newspaper. In addition, Gol Agha is another source that has been used to collect data. In addition to these two publications, other publications such as "Humor and Cartoon", "Isfahan Nimroz" and "Chelchelragh" have also been used to collect data. After collecting the data, they were first classified into three sections, including innovations related to derivative constructions, innovations related to fabricated verbs, and innovations related to Al- construction. In the next step, an attempt has been made to address the linguistic and non-linguistic needs based on the presented analysis of each data set, which have played a role in the creation and emergence of each of these innovations, and finally the reasons for consolidation and the lack of consolidation of these grammatical innovations in language is examined. 4. Results and discussion In this research, we indicated that a high number of innovations have been created in the basis of analogy. Furthermore, the findings suggest that seemingly most of the innovations have the potentiality to enter the formal language but evidently the language enclines to absorb the innovations which have been coined by virtue of the language exigency or the deficits of applicable grammatical constructions. In fact, in this article, it was shown that humorous grammatical constructions in many cases indicate the need of the Persian language for the mentioned constructions. This brings to mind the common saying that any joke may express a serious fact. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions In this study, it was found that innovations in derivative constructions have been created in most cases in comparison with existing constructions in Persian language, which in some cases has been accompanied by borrowing from Arabic and European loanwords. But in the meantime, innovations invented solely to create humor do not seem to enter the official language, even if they are of high-frequency. In addition, in the case of fabricated verbs, it was found that in some cases these verbs were created due to the principle of linguistic economics. In this case, speakers tend to use the simple form of the verb instead of its compound form. But in most cases, fabricated verbs are created due to the lack of the present tense to express some concepts or processes. Regarding the humorous innovations in Al- constructions, it was also revealed that apparently due to the long-term contact of Persian speakers with the Arabic language, some constructions of the Arabic language have entered the Persian language. But in the meantime, the use of Persian words in grammatical constructions of the Arabic language based on the theory of heterogeneity due to being humorous has been widely observed as a tool to create humor by satirists. Select Bibliography Ahmadi-Givi H.and Anvari, H. 2006. Persian Grammar, 2nd ed. Tehran: Fatemi Pubication. [In Persian] Attardo, S. 2008a. Semantics and Pragmatics of Humor. Blackwell: Language and Linguistics Compass. Bybee, Joan. 2010. Language, usage and cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bybee, Joan. 2015. Language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grice, p. 1975. Personal Identity. Berkely: University of California Press. Matthews, P.H. 1991. Morphology.2nd Edition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Miller,R.M. 2015. Trask's historical linguistics.3rd Edition. .London: Newyork: Routledge. Naghzhuy Kohan, M and Davari, S. 2013. Psudo-affixation. Researchs in comparative Linguistics. 2(1), 65-85. [In Persian] Raskin,V. 1985. Semantics mechanisms of humor. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: D.Reidel. Sadeghi, A. 1993. On fabricated verbs in Persian. Proceedings of the scientific Persian Seminar.Tehran:Iran University Press. [In Persian] این مقاله در چارچوب دستور کاربردبنیاد به دگرگونی زبان به بررسی نوآوریهای دستوری طنزآمیزِ سالهای اخیر در مطبوعات طنز می‌پردازد. هدف پژوهش این است که با جمع آوری داده‌ها از مطبوعات طنز دریابد این نوآوری‌های براساس چه سازوکارهایی شکل گرفته، در چه ساختهایی به‎کار رفتهاست و از میان آنها مواردی که در زبان بسامد بالایی دارند چه ویژگیهایی دارند. این نوآوریها در سه بخش طبقهبندی و تجزیه و تحلیل شدهاند: ساختهای اشتقاقی، ساخت فعل جعلی و ساختهای «ال»دار. با بررسی مشخص شد که بیشتر این نوآوریهای براساس فرایندهای قیاسی در زبان شکل گرفته‌است که حاصل کاربرد زبان است. علاوه‌بر این، به نظر میرسد بیشتر نوآوریهای دستوری طنزآمیز را میتوان نشانۀ نیاز زبان فارسی به ساخت‌های جدید دانست، ساخت‌هایی که در زبان معیار قابل قبول نیستند اما در فضای طنز و شوخ‌طبعی می‌توان آنها را به‎کار برد

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Verb "bu:n", "to be" in Kurdish فعل «bu:n»، «بودن»، در کردی 77 101 4872 10.22124/plid.2021.18607.1513 FA رؤیا تابعی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران. شجاع تفکری رضایی استادیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران. عامر قیطوی دانشیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران. Journal Article 2021 01 10 The current study aims to investigate stative lexical aspect of Sourani Kurdish predicates made by adjectives and copula bu:n, ‘to be’, applying binary classification of Smith (1997/1991). The findings reveal that the predicates are not always stative experiencing a kind of aspect-conversion influenced by two factors. The first factor is the copula bu:n, ‘to be’, which is a homonym with two different meanings, bu:n, ‘to be’, and ‘to become’ The predicates which are the result of adjectives and copula in the meaning of ‘to become’ are always non-stative and stage-level. Besides, the data show that all predicates which are the result of combining adjectives and copula bu:n in the meaning of ‘to be’ are not always stative influenced by the content of the adjectives in the structure. According to adjective classification by Schmitt (1972) and Bach (1978), the predicates made by the adjectives belonging to the classifying group and bu:n, ‘to be’, always make stative individual-stage predicates. However, the ones belonging to the qualifying group produce non-stative stage-level predicates. 1. Introduction “Aspect” is a syntactic category in linguistic studies which is expressed on verbs either by grammatical morphemes or the verb content observing how an action, event, or state, denoted by a verb, extends over time in speaker’s perspective. Linguists have classified aspect making a distinction between “grammatical aspect” and “lexical aspect”. Grammatical aspect considers aspect through the sentence and performs like a camera lens which focuses on all or part of a situation to highlight the information. Each language applies various mechanisms to show grammatical aspect including affixes, reduplication, copula verbs, and grammatical morphemes. Lexical aspect appears in verb content. They differ in the temporal properties of durativity, culmination and delimination. 2. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework of the present study is based on the classification for lexical aspect by Smith (1997) (He calls this aspect as situation type). The first group is “activity” containing special temporal features like dynamism, telicity and duration. Second class is “accomplishment” which is distinguished from others by features like dynamism, duration, telicity, and having process and outcome. This kind of aspect is characterized by having continuous stages moving toward natural final point. Third group are “achievement” predicates which are dynamic, telic and instantaneous predicates changing the state. It is likely that final point of the action is never a part of the action. Next group are “semelfactives” which refer to single-stage, dynamic, atelic, and instantaneous predicates which mostly do not have any consequences. They are the simplest form of actions since they just have one event. They happen in a glance and do not last in time. Final class is “state” which refers to stable situations holding for a moment. They have stative and durative features. The property of duration holds for all statives even those temporary ones referring to short instantaneous situations. This class needs an exterior motivation to change from one state to the other. Besides, initiation and final points are not considered as parts of a state; they are separated situations which make the changing situation points. 3. Methodology The current study is a kind of descriptive-analytical one whose data are collected from Kurdish daily conversations, news and the dialogues in series broadcasted in Kurdistan Channel. We examine 42 sentences containing copula verb bu:n out of 265 samples. Moreover, linguistic intuition of one of the authors is applied to analyze the data. 4. Results and Discussion The current study is carried out to figure out the distinction between the predicates made by the combination of adjectives and copula verb bu:n in Ardalan Variant. Kurdish has two copula verbs, ‘to be’ and ‘to become’, although their bare infinitive is the homonym bu:n. In spite of this similarity, the predicates made by adjectives and these copulas act differently from each other. It turns out that content applies restrictions on predicates, so that the predicate made by adjective and bu:n meant ‘to become’ always produces stage-level predicates. They often instill achievement predicates. However, the verb bu:n, ‘to be’, has some limitations in choosing adjectives. The findings reveal that in spite of being stative, the predicates made by bu:n, ‘to be’, are not all stative and individual-level. The sentences with such predicates sometimes show a kind of aspect-conversion. Therefore, it indicates that copula verb bu:n in not the only factor for aspect-conversion. In fact, the nature of the adjective in compound predicates is recognized as the other aspect-conversion factor in Sourani Kurdish. Therefore, the copula verb bu:n, ‘to be’, and classifying adjectives mainly make stative and individual-level predicates, although the predicates from the copula bu:n, ‘to be’, and qualifying adjectives make stage-level predicates. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions The present study aims to figure out stative predicates made by adjectives and copula verb bu:n, as the light verb, in Sourani Kurdish. The findings reveal that these kinds of predicates face aspect-conversion. The copula verb bu:n is recognized as the main factor to change aspect. Kurdish has two auxiliaries, ‘to be’ and ‘to become’ whose bare infinitive is hyponym bu:n. As bu:n means ‘to become’, the predicate is always non-stative and stage-level. However, the predicates from bu:n, ‘to be’, and adjectives are not always stative. The second factor regarding aspect-conversion, is the nature of the adjective present in compound verbs. In fact, the classifying adjectives and the verb bu:n, ‘to be’, always make stative individual-level predicates, whereas the qualifying adjectives make non-stative stage-level predicates. Select Bibliography Arche,M.J. 2006. Individuals in time: Tense, aspect and the individual/stage distinction, Journal of Linguistics, 44 (2), 514-519. Bache, C. 1978. The Order of Premodifying Adjectives in Present-day English, Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press. Comrie, B. 1976. Aspect. Cambridge: CUP. Dowty, D. 1979. Word Meaning and Montague Grammar. Dordrecht: Reidel. Nashaat Assi, R. 2011. The Copula Verb Be in Modern English with Reference to Sourani- Dialect in Modern Kurdish. Humanity Studies, 6:2, 1- 14 Schmidt, R. 1972. L’adjective de et relation en français, anglais allemande. Göppingen: Alfred Kümmerle. Schmitt, C. 1992. Ser and estar: A matter of aspect, North East Linguistic Society. 22, 411–426. Smith, C.S. 1991/1997. The Parameter of Aspect. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Vendler, Z. 1967. Verbs and times, In: Linguistics and Philosophy, Z. Vendler (ed.), 97–121. بررسی نمود ایستا در محمول‌های حاصل از ترکیب صفت و فعل ربطی «bu:n» در کردی سورانی، گونۀ اردلان، با استناد به تقسیم‌بندی دوبخشی اسمیت، موضوع این پژوهش ‌است که داده‌های آن از گفتار روزمرۀ گویشوران کردزبان جمع‌آوری شده‌است. نتایج حاصل از واکاوی داده‌ها نشان می‌دهد محمول‌های مذکور همواره ایستا نیستند و گاه دچار نمودگردانی می‌شوند که متأثر از دو عامل است. عامل اول در نمودگردانی این افعال، فعل ربطی «bu:n» است. بررسی داده‌ها نشان می‌دهد کردی سورانی دو فعل ربطی به معنای «بودن» و «شدن» دارد که مصدر آنها به صورت هم‌آوا-هم‌نویسۀ «bu:n» است. چنانچه محمول حاصل ترکیب صفت و فعل ربطی «bu:n» در معنای «شدن» باشد، نمود واژگانی غیرایستا است. از سوی دیگر، تمامی محمول‌های حاصل از ترکیب صفت و فعل ربطی «bu:n» به معنای «بودن» نیز ایستا نیستند. عامل دوم، ماهیت صفتی است که در ساختمان محمول به کار رفته‌است. با استناد به تقسیم‌بندی صفتی اشمیت و باخ دریافتیمچنانچه صفت در این محمول‌ها به دستۀ صفت‌های طبقه‌بندی تعلق داشته باشد، محمول همواره ایستا و پایدار خواهد بود، اما صفت‌های متعلق به دستۀ صفت‌های توصیفی محمول‌هایی غیرایستا و ناپایدار می‌سازند.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_4872_b2b5c91e31263f9a891ed44e5ee43eb0.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Lexical Variation in Villages of Khorramabad تحلیل و بررسی تنوع واژگانی در آبادی‌های شهرستان خرم‌آباد 103 128 4849 10.22124/plid.2021.18724.1518 FA رضا امینی استادیار زبان‎شناسی همگانی، پژوهشگاه میراث فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2021 01 25 This research is about lexical variation in Khorramabad county of Lorestan province. The data come from the data gathered for Linguistic Atlas of Lorestan. The data are categorized as kinship terms, words related to natural objects, words related to human, animal names, words related to plants, words related to human-made objects, pronouns, demonstrative – place adverbs, question words, and numbers. The language varieties of the villages whose data are analyzed in this research are varieties of Lori and Laki languages for which the coefficient of variation is calculated and analyzed separately. We see not only considerable language variation in Khorramabad, but also many lexical differences in the varieties used in villages of the county. Findings indicate that in both Lori and Laki, the category of number has the least coefficient of variation, and the category of words related to human-made objects has the largest coefficient of variation. The analysis of the data also shows that words for “father”, “language”, “bread”, and “blood” have had the least variation in language varieties whose data have been analyzed in this research, so they can be considered as the most basic words of those language varieties. 1. Introduction In sociolinguistics, dialectology is divided into two main branches, regional dialectology and social dialectology. The main purpose of regional dialectology is studying and documenting language varieties of a particular region, while the purpose of social dialectology is to do the same task about the language varieties of social classes. Based on this categorization, dialects are also divided into "regional dialects" and "social dialects". In Iran, attention to the importance of collecting data of the country's different dialects and the need to prepare an atlas for Iran's languages and dialects has been known by researchers since several decades ago. Lorestan is among the provinces that the Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Tourism has started collecting its villages’ data to prepare the linguistic atlas of the province as a part of Iran's linguistic atlas. Based on these data, in this article, lexical variation of the language varieties of the villages of Khorramabad, the capital of Lorestan province, is analyzed and explained. 2. Theoretical Framework Geeraerts et al. (1994: 3-4) have categorized lexical variation into four categories: "semasiological variation", "onomasiological variation", "contextual variation", and "formal variation". The lexical variation considered in this study is "formal variation" that is a"… situation that a particular referent or type of referent may be named by various lexical items, regardless of whether these represent conceptually different categories or not". In this type of lexical variation, a specific thing, relationship, or concept may be referred to by different lexical items. Such variations are seen in all languages and they can be explained via considering social, historical, geographical, and stylistic factors. 3. Methodology The data of this research have been collected in a field work, using a questionnaire and through face-to-face interviews with the speakers. The questionnaire included a group of words and sentences. The words and sentences are selected in a way that different lexical categories of the language variety in question and its different linguistic structures can be extracted. During the interviews, the data were recorded with the permission of the speakers. Then, using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) the data is transcribed. Then, the data are categorized, and studied and analyzed as kinship terms, words related to natural objects, words related to human, animal names, words related to plants, words related to human-made objects, pronouns, demonstrative-place adverbs, question words and numbers. 4. Results & Discussions Investigation of lexical variation in the eight lexical categories of this study shows that in both Lori and Laki languages, there is no variation in the category of number and therefore this category can be considered as the most fundamental lexical category. Also, the greatest lexical variation, in both languages, can be seen in the category of "words related to human-made objects", that can be explained via consideration of the effect of the geographical environment in which individuals live has on the formation of those entities. A large part of the words of Lori and Laki language varieties of Khorramabad county are common. However, some words are used only in Laki and some only in Lori. As a result, by paying attention to some words, it is possible to know whether the variety in question is Lori or Laki. In addition, there may be an implicative relationship between the use of some words in which phonemes of /z/ and /ʒ/ are used, in a way that - in a number of words - the use of /z/ can be a sign of the variety being Lori, and the use of /ʒ/ can be a sign of the variety being Laki (for example, the use of zæn ‘woman’ and tɛzɡa ‘stove’ in Lori ʒæn ‘woman’ and tæʒɡa ‘stove’ in Laki). These points confirm that Laki and Lori belong to two different subbranches of Iranian languages, Northwestern Iranian and Southwestern Iranian respectively. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions Investigation of lexical variation in the two Iranian languages whose data were studied in this research shows that although language contact has affected the language varieties of the region, they have retained a number of their distinguishing features. Some lexical impacts of Laki on Lori varieties of Khorramabad county are evident, that is why some lexical items used in Lori of the region cannot be seen in other varieties of Lori in other regions of Iran. Among these lexical items, we can mention the use of the word kælæʃir ‘rooster’ in Lori varieties of the region which seems to have entered the Lori of the region of Lorestan from the northwestern Iranian languages through Laki. Select Bibliography Amanolahi Baharvand, S. 2000. Lors: A Historical and Sociological Analysis, Quarterly of National Studies, No. 6, 221-242. [In Persian] Anonby, E. J. 2003. Update on Luri: How many Languages?, JRAS, Seris, (13), 171-197. Dabirmoghadam, M. 2013. Typology of Iranian Languages, Volume 2, Tehran: SAMT. [In Persian] Geeraerts, D., S. Grondelaers, P. Bakema 1994. The Structure of Lexical Variation: Meaning, Naming, and Context, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Izadpanah, H. 2001. Dictionary of Lori, Tehran: Asatir Publication. [In Persian] Mackenzie, D. N. 1961. The Origins of Kurdish, Transactions of the Philological Society, Vol. 60, Issue 1. Morgan, J. MCMIV/1904. Études Linguistiques, Dialectes Kurdes, Langues et Dialects du Nord de la Perse, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. Rezayati Kishekhaleh, Moharram, A. Khademi Arde 1998. Thematic Dictionary of Taleshi – Persian, Rasht: Gilan University Publication. [In Persian] Swadesh, M. 1971. The Origin and Diversification of Language, Joel Sherzer (ed.), forwaed by Dell Hymes, Chicago: Aldine-Atherton. Zarinjuyi, M. 2017. Report of Gathering and Documentation of Regional Dialects of Khorramabad, Tehran: Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Faculty of Linguistics, Inscriptions, and Texts. [In Persian] دادههای این پژوهش از اطلس زبانی استان لرستان اقتباس شده که در قالبِ اصطلاحات خویشاوندی، واژه‌های مربوط به عینیتهای طبیعی، واژههای مرتبط با بدن انسان، نام حیوانات، واژههای مربوط به گیاهان، واژههای مربوط به عینیتهای انسانساز، ضمیرها، قیدهای اشاری- مکانی و ادات پرسشی و عددها دستهبندی شدهاند. گونههای زبانیِ آبادیهایی که دادههای آنها بررسی و تحلیل شدهاند، از زبانهای لُری و لکی هستند که دادههای هر یک به صورت جداگانه بررسی و تحلیل شده‌است. پیکرة بررسیشده، هم تنوع دَرخورِتوجه زبانی شهرستان خرمآباد را نشان میدهد و هم تنوع واژگانیِ گونههای زبانی آبادیهای این شهرستان را. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان میدهد که در هر دو زبان لری و لکی، مقولۀ واژگانی «عددها» کمترین ضریب تنوع، و مقولۀ واژگانیِ «عینیتهای انسانساز» بیشترین ضریب تنوع را در میان مقولههای واژگانی بررسی‏شده داشتهاند. همچنین بررسی دادهها نشان میدهد که واژههایی همچون «پدر»، «زبان»، «نان» و «خون» کمترین تنوع را در گونههای زبانی بررسی شده داشتهاند، و از اینرو آنها را باید از بنیادی‌ترین واژههای این گونههای زبانی دانست.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Persian Cyclic Meters with More than Two Hemistiches وزن‌های دوری چندپاره 129 141 5133 10.22124/plid.2021.20408.1549 FA امید طبیب زاده استاد زبان‌شناسی همگانی پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2021 08 18 Cyclic meters in Persian Poetry are generally consisted of two half-lines or hemistiches, but this paper deals with cyclic meters consisting of more than two hemistiches. This paper deals with such poly-hemistich Persian meters which totally belong to contemporary poets. These meters have been introduced and analyzed based on numerous evidences taken from Panahi’s corpus (2016-2020). 1. Introduction This paper, based on Abolhassan Najafi (2014; 2016; 2015), dealt with a kind of cyclic meter in Persian poetry which has more than two hemistiches. Cyclic meters are generally consisted of two just half-lines or hemistiches, but this paper deals with cyclic meters consisting of more than two hemistiches. Such poly-hemistich Persian meters totally belonging to contemporary poets are analyzed here. These meters have been introduced based on numerous evidences taken from Panahi’s corpus (2016- 2020). 2. Theoretical Framework Cyclic meters are usually defined as meters bearing just two hemistiches or half-lines, and these two half-lines are metrically and even syntactically so similar that may be changed easily. The other important metrical feature of cyclic meter is the fact that the final quantity in each half-line may be optionally light (or short), heavy (long) or super-heavy. That is, the rule applying on the final quantity of each Persian line is also applied on the final syllable of each half-line in lines with cyclic meter. 3. Methodology It is worth mentioning that cyclic meter is a metrical phenomenon observed in Persian quantitative poetry but not in Arabic meter. There is, however, another kind of cyclic meter in Persian which has not been considered yet in Persian metrical studies. This meter is just like the traditional cyclic one but it is consisted of more than two hemistiches. 4. Result and Discussion Each hemistich of these lines is syntactically and metrically independent so that one can replace them with each other easily. In this paper, based on the five-volume book by Gholamreza Panahi (2016-2020), such poly-hemistich Persian meters which totally belong to contemporary poets, have been introduced and analyzed. Based on numerous evidences taken from Panahi’s corpus, these meters have been divided into two varieties: 1) A major group with equal hemistiches- for example three hemistiches and each hemistich is mostaf’elon fa’ulon. 2) A minor group with different hemistiches- for example three hemistiches metered as mafa’elon mafa’el, and one final hemistich metered as mafa’elon mafa. 5. Conclusions and Suggestions Cyclic meters are generally consisted of two half-lines or hemistiches, but this paper dealt with cyclic meters consisting of more than two hemistiches. In this paper, based on the five-volume book by Gholamreza Panahi (2016-2020), such Persian meters totally belonging to contemporary poets, have been introduced and analyzed. These meters have been divided into two varieties: 1) A major group with equal hemistiches; and 2) A minor group with different hemistiches. Select Bibliography Azarsina, M. 2017. Poetry? Or Music?, Tehran, Sorush. [in Persian] Dehlavi, H. 2000. The Relation between, Poetry and Vokal Music, Tehran, Mahour. [in Persian] Elwell-Sutton, 1976. The Persian Meters, Cambridge. Gharamani Moghbel, A. A. 2020. “Five Syllabic Feet in Persian and Arabic Prosody, and their Application in Persian Prosody”, In: Persian Language and Iranian Dialects, Vol. 5, N. 9, 45-65. [in Persian] Nadjafi, A. 2014. “Cyclic Meter, a problem unobserved by Traditional Prosody”, Name-je Farhnagestan, Vol. 13: N. 52, 6-18. [in Persian]. Nadjafi, A. 2016. Persian Prosody (A Textbook), ed. By Omid Tabibzadeh, Tehran, Niloufar. [in Persian] Nadjafi, A. 2019. The Classification of Persian Prosody, ed. By Omid Tabibzadeh, Tehran, Niloufar. [in Persian] Panahi, G. 2016-2020. An Introduction to Quantitative Meter, Tehran, Payam, 5 Vol. [in Persian] Parhizi, A. 2001. Modern Persian Prosody, Tehran, Ghoghnus. [in Persian] عروض‌دانان به تفصیل دربارۀ وزن‌های دوری در اشعار شاعران قدیم فارسی بحث کرده‌اند، اما در سروده‌های شاعران جدید، مخصوصا در آثار ترانه‌سرایان و نوحه‌پردازان، به اشعاری برمی‌خوریم که تمامی ویژگی‌های وزن‌های دوری را دارند جز اینکه هر مصراع آنها نه از دو نیم‌مصراع، بلکه از بیش از دو پاره‌مصراع تشکیل شده‌است. این قبیل وزن‌ها را وزن‌های دوری چندپاره نامیدیم و آنها را به دو دستۀ وزن‌های مساوی و وزن‌های نامساوی تقسیم کرده‌ایم. مصراع‌ها در این هر دو گونه وزن، بیش از دو پارۀ وزنی است، اما این پاره‌ها در وزن‌های دوری مساوی، عینا همانند هستند، درحالی‌که در وزن‌های نامساوی تغییراتی جزئی با هم دارند. در این مقاله تمام این قبیل وزن‌ها را از پیکرۀ مفصل پناهی (1395 -1399) استخراج کرده‌ایم و سپس ویژگی‌های آنها را شرح داده‌ایم.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 The Study of Compounding Process and Its Classification in terms of Meaning and Relationship between Constituents in Mazandarani بررسی فرایند ترکیب و دسته‌بندی آن از نظر معنایی و رابطۀ بین عناصر سازندة آن در زبان مازندرانی 143 172 4850 10.22124/plid.2021.15847.1444 FA سید تقی اندی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد علوم و تحقیقات، تهران، ایران. ارسلان گلفام دانشیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، تهران، ایران فردوس آقاگل زاده دانشیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2020 02 28 As a branch of morphology and a mechanism of word-formation and due to its high frequency and productivity, compounding has received considerable attention by many linguists. However, it has not yet been studied in Mazandarani. In the present study, Mazandarani compounds taken from Tabari dictionary have been analyzed semantically and in terms of the relationship between their constituents. Based on Bisetto and Scalise’s categorization as the theoretical framework of the study, compounds are classified into three major groups, namely, coordination, attributive and subordinative. Regarding the relationship between the constituents, compounds are divided into verbal and non-verbal ones. Verbal compounds and their classifications are the main focus of the present study. A verbal compound is a type of subordinative one in whose construction, the non-verbal constituent is the complement of the verbal constituent. Semantically verbal compounds are classified into four groups including argument, non-argument, reduplicative, and phrasal ones. The evidence shows that there is almost a complete correspondence between Mazandarani and the classification suggested by Bisetto and Scalise. 1. Introduction Contemporary Iranian languages and dialects are the remaining of the Proto-Iranian language which was highly related to Proto-Indo-Aryan language. Their ancestor was Proto-Indo-European language. Iranian languages constitute the western branch of Indo-Iranian languages group. Proto-Indo-Iranian language itself is a branch of Proto-Indo-European language (Dabir Moghaddam, 2014:93-94). Mazandarani is from Indo-European family and is a branch of Indo-Iranian languages and comes from Iranian languages group (Bashirnezhad, 2013:11). Morphology plays two basic roles, inflection and word-formation (Bauer, 1983:34). Word-formation is accomplished through derivation and compounding. Compounding is one of the productive processes of word-formation among languages in the world. Due to its productivity, it has received considerable attention by many Iranian and non-Iranian scholars. Among Iranian scholars, we can refer to Kalbasi (1992), Sameɂei (1996), Tabatabaee (2003), Sadeghi (2004), Khabbaz (2007), Shaghaghi (2007) and Ghonchepur (2013). Among non-Iranian scholars, we can mention Williams (1981), Selkirk (1982), Jensen (1990), Katamba (1993), Faab (1998), Spencer (2000), Haspelmath (2002), Bisetto and Scalise (2005) and Lieber(2010). However, this productive process has not yet been studied in Mazandarani. The present research attempts to analyze Mazandarani compounds taken from Tabari dictionary (Nasri Ashrafi: 2002), semantically and in terms of the relationship between the constituents. 2. Theoretical framework In the last decades, numerous studies have been conducted with regard to compounding process and its different types by distinguished linguists around the world. For example, Bloomfield (1933), Marchand (1969), Spencer (1991), Faab (1998), Olsen (2001), Bauer (2001), Haspelmath (2002), and Boij (2005), have suggested different classifications regarding compounds. Having discussed the inadequacies of the classifications offered by others, Bisetto and Scalise (2005) have introduced their own categorization which they consider as the most complete one. According to Ghonchehpur (2013), their categorization is the only one which is universally accepted and valid. In the present research, for the classification of verbal compounds Bisetto and Scalise (2005), and for the distinction and determination of syntactic, semantic and morphological heads, the criteria offered by Liber (2009) have been taken into consideration. 3. Methodology The data of the present study are taken from Tabari dictionary (Nasri Ashrafi 2002) amounting to 8025 compounds. It is worth mentioning that the present researcher who is a Mazandarani native speaker has collected a number of compounds not listed in Tabari dictionary. Including a corpus data approximately amounting to 8300 compounds. To select the sample, we referred to Kerjecie-Morgan table. Based on it, if the subjects (here compounds) are below 10000, the sample could be 384. However, in order to increase the measurement accuracy, we increased the sample to 2000 compounds. In the present study, which is a theoretical one, a descriptive analytical method has been used for the analysis and interpretation of the data. Therefore, the sample of compounds have been analyzed in the form of a table and based on such criteria as syntactic category, semantic classification of compound types (endocentric, exocentric and coordinate) the position of head and being verbal or non-verbal. 4. Results & Discussion As an important process of word-formation and due to its high frequency and productivity, compounding has received considerable attention by many linguists. In the present study, Mazandarani compounds taken from Tabari dictionary have been analyzed semantically and in terms of the relationship between their constituents. Based on Bisetto and Scalise’s categorization as the theoretical framework of the study, Mazandarani compounds are classified into three major groups, namely, coordinate, attributive and subordinative. Regarding the relationship between the constituents, they are divided into verbal and non-verbal ones. A verbal compound is a type of subordinative compound in whose construction; the non-verbal constituent is the complement of the verbal constituent. In other words, in the construction of verbal compounds, the constituent derived from a verb is the syntactic head. However, in non-verbal compounds the constituents derived from a verb is not the syntactic head. Verbal compounds in turn are divided into compounds having specific syntactic head and non-specific syntactic head. Semantically verbal compounds are classified into four groups including argument, non-argument, reduplicative, and phrasal ones. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions Verbal compounds and their classifications were the main focus of the present study. It was shown that in verbal compounds, the syntactic head is a noun, an adjective or an adverb derived from a verb. It was also shown that there was almost a complete correspondence between Mazandarani and the classification suggested by Bisetto and Scalise. Furthermore, an important point which received special attention in the present research was the distribution of semantic, syntactic and morphological heads in a particular compound. In other words, there is no equal distribution among them in different compounds. However, there is an overlap among them just in head last/final endocentric verbal compounds in the sense that the same constituent simultaneously plays the role of all three heads. In exocentric verbal compounds, neither constituent functions as the semantic head. However, they have a syntactic head. In coordinate compounds, it is not easy to distinguish which constituent determines the syntactic category of the whole compound since both constituents are of the same category. In addition, the meaning of the whole compound is the sum of the meanings of its constituents. The goal of the present research was to study compounding process especially verbal compounds and their classifications in Mazandarani. However, there are some issues like non-verbal compounds, compound verbs and incorporation in Mazandarani which require further research. Furthermore, the above mentioned topics as well as verbal compounds can be studied within the framework of other morphological theories such as lexeme-based morphology, distributed morphology and cognitive morphology. Select Bibliography Afrashi, A. 2010. The Structure of Persian Language Tehran, Samt press. [In Persian] Baur, L. 1983. English Word Formation, Cambridge: CUP. Bisetto, A. and S. Scalise. 2005. The classification of compounds, LingueeLinguaggio 4 (2), 319-332 Dabir-Moghaddam, M. 2013. Typology of Iranian Languages, (vol.1). Tehran, Samt press. [In Persian] Ghonchepour, M. 2013. Verbal Compounds in Persian, Grammar Journal, (vol.9). Tehran, The Academy of Persian Language and Literature. [In Persian] Kalbasi, I. 1992. Derivational Structure of Word in Today’s Persian, Tehran, Institute of Cultural Studies. [In Persian] Katamba, F. 1993. Morphology, Mac Millan, press. LTD Lieber, R. 2010. introducing Morphology, Cambridge: Cambridge university press Sadeghi, A. A. 2004. Compounds Derived from Verb Stem, Grammar Journal, (vol.9). Tehran, The Academy of Persian Language and Literature. [In Persian] Spencer, A. 2000. Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar, Oxford: Blackwell. در پژوهش حاضر کلمات مرکب مازندرانی برگرفته از فرهنگ تبری (نصری اشرفی، 1381)، از نظر معنایی و رابطۀ بین عناصر سازنده بررسی شدهاست. برمبنای دسته‌بندی بیستو و اسکالیز (2005)، به‌عنوان چارچوب نظری پژوهش، ترکیب سه دستۀ اصلی همپایگی، اسنادی/ توصیفی و وابستگی را در بر می‌گیرد. این دسته‌بندی مبتنیبر روابط دستوری ممکن بین دو سازه در ساختارهای نحوی است. از نظر رابطه بین عناصر سازنده، ترکیب دو دستۀ فعلی و غیرفعلی را شامل می‌شود. تأکید مقالۀ حاضر عمدتا بر ترکیب فعلی و دسته‌بندی آن است. ترکیب فعلی نوعی ترکیب وابسته است که در ساختار آن سازۀ غیرفعلی، متمم سازۀ فعلی است. ترکیب‌های فعلی از نظر معنایی به چهار دستۀ موضوعی، غیرموضوعی، گروهی و مکرر تقسیم‌بندی می‌شوند. شواهد نشان می‌دهدکه انطباق نسبتا کاملی بین مازندرانی و دسته‌بندی بیستو و اسکالیز وجود دارد.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Assessing Linguistic Vitality of Mazandarani in Urban areas بررسی وضعیت حیات زبانی مازندرانی در مناطق شهری 173 195 4194 10.22124/plid.2020.15665.1439 FA محمد واخیده کارشناسی ارشد زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران. محمد امین صراحی استادیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران مریم دانای طوس دانشیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران Journal Article 2020 02 07 Language vitality is a concept that indicates to how extent a language is used as a communication instrument in different social situations. The highest point of the vitality of a language is when the language is applied in full-scale both at home and outside in the society for all purposes while the lowest point is when no one applies the language for no purpose, that is to say the language is extinct. Nowadays, threats to languages are a global crisis, since the number of children who learn their native languages is remarkably decreasing. Mazandarani is not also excluded from this threat. The aim of this study is to apply UNESCO framework that is a result of a collaboration of an expert group of scholars on endangered languages, to assess the vitality of Mazandarani in urban areas. Analyzing the data resulted from questionnaires, official and library sources and field study indicated that Mazandarani receives the point 2.74, a situation a bit worse than what is defined as “definitely endangered” in UNESCO framework for assessing the vitality and endangerment of languages. Discussion on research variables, gender, education, and age, specified that comparing to women, men totally both have a better and more positive attitude toward Mazandarani language and use it more. As education level rises, the use of Mazandarani decreases and the attitude of speaker society toward this language becomes more negative and pessimistic as well. 1. Introduction Linguistic vitality is a concept that was introduced in the final quarter of the 20th century, when with the growth of communication technology, the world was becoming a desolate. The need for communication forced many communities to leave their native language, and this process caused tremendous language death. So far, no research has been conducted to determine the amount of danger the Mazandarani language variety might come across and explain its reasons. Therefore, the present study follows two main objectives: determining the linguistic vitality status of Mazandarani and introducing and presenting a scientific framework that can determine the vital status of other Iranian language varieties and provide the language policy-makers with the results. 2. Theoretical Framework This study was conducted based on the linguistic vitality assessment framework of UNESCO (2003) on endangered languages. UNESCO (2003) has introduced nine factors for assessing language vitality which together are very useful in determining the general sociological status of languages. These factors are: 1) intergenerational transmission of language, 2) Definite number of speakers, 3) Ratio of speakers to the total population, 4) Areas in which language is used, 5) Response to new areas and media, 6) Application in language teaching and literacy, 7) Attitudes and language policies of the government and official authorities, 8) Attitudes of community members towards their language and 9) Quantity and quality of documentation. None of these factors can be used alone, because a language that is in a high position based on one factor may need immediate attention and action based on other factors. For each of the above factors, except for the definite number of speakers, 6 different degrees have been considered, each of which indicates a degree of linguistic life and risk. 3. Methodology The data of this research was culled in Mazandaran province. To collect data, based on the 9 UNESCO factors a closed-ended questionnaire consisting of 22 questions was developed. The validity and reliability of this questionnaire was confirmed by several linguists and sociologists of language. The status of 6 out of the 9 UNESCO factors was assessed through the data obtained from the questionnaire, and the other 3 factors, namely the definite number of speakers, the use in language teaching and literacy, and the quantity and quality of language documentation based on information and statistical reports, documents in libraries, websites, references to schools, education departments, as well as language teaching institutes and schools. In order to collect data uniformly and as close as possible to the real situation of Mazandaran language in terms of life and endangerment, researchers divided the province into three geographical areas to distribute the questionnaires in equal numbers. Based on the Cochran's formula, the sample population of the study was determined 665 people for each area which was a total of 1995 people. 800 questionnaires were distributed in each of the three eastern, central and western regions of Mazandaran province, however, a total of 1601 answered questionnaires returned. The participants of this study were divided into several groups based on three factors: age, gender and level of education. 4. Results & Discussion For each of the factors, the participants were divided into the following categories: female up to 20 years, female 21 to 40 years, and female 41 years and above, male up to 20 years, male 21 to 40 years and male 41 years and higher. According to the data of this study, the intergenerational transmission factor is assigned a score of 2.83, which means that the status of this factor is slightly worse than the "definitely at risk" situation. Due to the decreasing trend of the number of speakers, the factor of definite number of speakers has been assigned 3 points, which indicates that the trend of the number of speakers of Mazandarani language also shows a definite danger for this language. The ratio of Mazandarani language speakers, which is directly related to the number of speakers, received a score of 3 and indicates a definite danger. The domain of language application is given a score of 3.33, which indicates the existence of "gradual reduction of domains" and "existence of multilingualism" together. In terms of responding to new domains and media, this language is completely "inactive" and has received a score of zero. In terms of application in education and literacy, Mazandarani has gained a score of 2, which means that despite the written materials, there is practically not much use for it. The attitudes and policies of the government and official authorities in Mazandarani have also received a score of 3, which means "passive matching" in the geographical area in which Mazandarani is used. In other words, the situation is such that in practice, the Mazandarani language community is moving towards assimilation. The attitude of the members of Mazandarani linguistic community toward their language has gained a score of 3.50. This score indicates that while most members support the preservation of their language, many are indifferent. The quantity and quality of Mazandarani documentation can be examined in two distinct categories: "audio and video recording" and "grammar, dictionary, texts and literature". A score of 4.00 is given to the quantity and quality of the documentation. Finally, the average of these 9 points, which is equal to 2.74, indicates the status of Mazandarani vitality and its degree of risk: a situation that is close to the "definitely endangered" situation described by UNESCO (2003) but slightly worse. 5. Conclusions & suggestions This study shows that the Mazandarani language is definitely in danger. The most important factor in the survival of any language is the intergenerational transmission of that language. Therefore, in order to protect Mazandarani language and reduce the dangers that threaten its existence, it is undoubtedly really effective to pay a serious attention to intergenerational transmission. To achieve this, many measures can be taken that require the collective efforts of speakers and the support of the government and official authorities. Linguists and language activists can play an effective role in this case. The first step should be awareness. Due to the large number of speakers of Mazandarani, many people do not even think that this language is endangered and if the situation of intergenerational transmission continues in the same way, this language will become extinct in the not too distant future. Therefore, warning experts in this field and changing attitudes towards the mother tongue will definitely work. Select Bibliography Anderbeck, K. 2013. Portraits of Indonesian language vitality. Pacific Linguistics ICAL 2012 Proceedings 2. Bello, M. 2013. Assessing Language Vitality and Language Endangerment of Lete (Larteh). PhD Thesis. University of Ghana. Dwyer, A. M. 2011. Tools and Techniques for Endangered-Language Assessment and revitalization. In: Vitality and Viability of Minority Languages. October 23-24, 2009. New York: Trace Foundation Lecture Series Proceedings. Preprint. Gao, K. B. 2015. Assessing the Linguistic Vitality of Miqie: An Endangered Ngwi (Loloish) Language of Yunnan, China. Language Documentation & Conservation 9, 164-191. How, S. Y., Heng, C. S., and Abdullah, A. N. 2015. Language Vitality of Malaysian Languages and Its Relation to Identity. GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 15, (2), 119-136. Lee, N. H., & Van Way, J. (2016). Assessing Levels of Endangerment in the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat) Using the Language Endangerment Index (LEI). Language in Society. 45, (2), 271-292. Lewis, P. M., & Simons, G. F. 2010. Assessing Endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique, 55, 103–120. Mohamed, N., & Hashim, N. H. 2012. Language vitality of the Sihan community in Sarawak, Malaysia. KEMANUSIAAN: The Asian Journal of Humanities, 19, (1), 59-86. UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages. 2003. Language Vitality and Endangerment. Document submitted to the International Expert Meeting on UNESCO Program Safeguarding of Endangered Languages. Paris, 10-12 March 2003. Yagmur, K., and Kroon, S. 2003. Ethno- linguistic vitality perceptions and language revitalization in Bashkortostan. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 24, 4, 319-336. در سال 2003 یونسکو دستورالعملی را برای برآورد حیات زبانها و میزان در ‌معرض خطر بودن آنها ارائه داد. مزیت برآورد این است که با شناخت حوزه‌‌های کاربرد زبان و وضعیت موجود زبان در هر یک از عوامل نه‌گانۀ معرفیشدۀ یونسکو می‌توان راهکارهایی برای گسترش کاربرد، ثبت و مستندسازی و در‌نتیجه پیشگیری از انقراض زبان اندیشید. هرچند مهم‌ترین عامل در زنده ماندن هر زبانی انتقال زبان از والدین به فرزندان و به عبارتی دیگر، انتقال بیننسلی است، اما عوامل دیگری نیز بر حیات زبانی تأثیرگذار هستند و برای برآورد وضعیت حیات زبانی باید همۀ این عوامل را درکنار هم سنجید. هدف این پژوهش بررسی وضعیت حیات زبانی مازندرانی و برآورد نقاط ضعف و قوت آن با به‌کارگیری شیوه‌های یونسکو است. مازندرانی از زبان‌های ایرانی کرانۀ جنوبی دریای کاسپین است و حدود 3 میلیون گویشور دارد. این زبان نیز همانند دیگر زبان‌ها و گویش‌های محلی و منطقه‌ای ایران به دلایلی که تا حدودی در مقاله به آنها پرداخته شده در حال از دست دادن گویشوران خود است.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 The Analysis of the Position and Usage of Gonabadi Dialect بررسی جایگاه و کاربرد گویش گنابادی از منظر جامعه‌شناسی زبان 197 221 5173 10.22124/plid.2021.20450.1551 FA امید آزاد استادیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، مجتمع آموزش عالی گناباد، گناباد، ایران. مجتبی منشی زاده استاد فرهنگ و زبان‌های باستانی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2021 08 25 This study was conducted with the aim of detecting the social status of Gonabadi dialect as one of the oldest dialects of Iran via the analysis of the effect of social parameters like age, education, gender, and urbanity upon the frequency of Gonabadi usage in diverse fields including family, school, art, office, alley and street, and hobby. Our method was field analysis and the recruited instruments included questionnaire and interview. The sampling method was random based on which our statistical society included 240 participants from three age groups of 12 to 17, 25 to 35 and 50 and more were selected proportionally and equally from each gender and from two urban and rural societies. The results demonstrated that Gonabadi was the dominant language of informal fields, specifically, family, though in the more formal fields including school and office, Persian was the dominant language. Also, the propensity to utilize Persian among female, young, educated and urban participants outweighed this tendency in the male, older, uneducated, and rustic counterparts. Hence, on the light of these results, it could be asserted that Gonabadi is undergoing gradual trend of extinction in the realm of great Khorasan. 1. Introduction Language death is regarded as the degeneration of language variety as a result of gradual change toward a dominant language in communicative interactions. In fact, the emergence of this phenomenon creates diaglossia based on which gradually the inferior language is utilized in more restricted contexts paving the way for its gradual death. In doing so, social variables like gender, age and urbanicity would play crucial role. Also, as any dialect is an indispensable aspect of each culture, its death could be regarded as the degeneration of a semio-cultural element. The issue of language death or degeneration would become more serious when we observe that the results of the recent scientific researches corroborate the degeneration of dialects because according to a pessimistic estimate, only 600 languages of the world have the chance to survive during a longer span of time. Henceforth, regarding the importance of Iranian dialects preservations, in this research, via conduction a field study in the city of Gonabad, we tried to investigate the sociolinguistic status of Gonabadi as one of the south western dialects of Iran through analyzing its frequency of usage in different fields and native speakers’ attitudes toward it. 2. Theoretic framework From sociolinguistic perspective, diglossia is a type of standardization based on which two varieties of a language live alongside each playing a crucial function. Fasold (1984) envisages diglossia as a kind of style shifting asserting that when dominant and inferior varieties are mingled, the status of diglosssia would change. Fishman (1967, 1996), introducing his extended theory, emphasizes on the co-existence of standard language and regional dialects pointing out that today standard language has transformed into the common language of bilingual or multilingual societies. So, according to this theory, the regional dialect or language is utilized more in friendly settings like family while formal language like standard Persian is recruited in formal and educational settings. Ricento (2012), proposing social hierarchy of dialects and languages, believes that social hierarchy is imposed by political figures or popular media and in doing so, vernacular tongue gains low social prestige and is utilized extensively in interpersonal and informal interactions. In this hierarchy, there is another variety possessing high social prestige and is utilized more in formal interactions. In societies where social inequality is predominant, the majority of people are incapable of utilizing the standard language. Wurm (2002), proposing language endangerment theory, considers four levels of potentially endangered, endangered, seriously endangered, and completely endangered (death). Nercisance suggests three levels of diglossia in Iran including the co-existence of colloquial with literary Persian, the co-existence of standard Persian with a regional dialect and the co-existence of standard Persian with a regional language. 3. Methodology Our method was field analysis and the recruited instruments included questionnaire and interview. The sampling method was random based on which our statistical society included 240 participants from three age groups of 12 to 17, 25 to 35 and 50 and more, were selected proportionally and equally from each gender and from both urban and rural societies 4. Results and Discussion The results demonstrated that Gonabadi was the dominant language of informal fields, specifically, family, though in the more formal fields including school and office, Persian was the dominant language. Also, the propensity to utilize Persian among female, young, educated and urban participants outweighed this tendency in the male, older, uneducated and rustic counterparts. Hence, on the light of these results, it could be asserted that Gonabadi is undergoing gradual trend of extinction in the realm of great Khorasan. 5. Conclusions and Suggestions The overall performance of the participants in different fields including family, school, office, city, religion, art and amusement is indicative of a close relationship between the social variable of “age” and “Persian usage” with younger participants being more inclined to utilize Persian in these fields than their older counterparts. On the other hand, the important roles of the variables of “gender”, “education”, and “urbanity” in the use of Persian and Gonabadi were corroborated. Girls’ more robust propensity to utilize Persian than boys leads to the increase of Persian language acquisition in the family context, because girls as future mothers would play pivotal role in language learning of their children. Also, participants with M.A and Ph.D degree had a much stronger propensity to utilize Persian than other individuals. Regarding “urbanity”, our findings demonstrate the more extensive use of Persian language among city inhabitants compared to villiage inhabitants. Concerning the extension of urbanicity in Iran, more robust propensity of city inhabitants to utilize Persian language in their interpersonal interactions, is indicative of a gradual erosion and death of Gonabadi dialect. Furthermore, the positive attitudes of most speakers toward the use of Persian language, demonstrates that Gonabadi is losing its social status as the frank attitude of the speakers about the gradual erosion of this dialect indicated a vivid language change. Since languages and dialects comprehensively foreshadow the culture of each country and play a pivotal role in the representation of the customs, traditions and social events of each nation, any attempt to preserve Gonabadi inheriting the linguistic properties of Classical Persian, could also be regarded as an attempt to preserve the enriched treasure of Persian language. Select Bibliography Fasold, R. 1984. The sociolinguistics of society. Oxford: Basil Black Ferguson, C. A. 1959. Diglossia. word, 15(2), 325-340. Fishman, J. 1996. What Do You Lose When You Lose Your Language? ERIC: London. Fishman, J. A. 1967. Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism. Journal of social issues, 23(2), 29-38. Gal, S. 1979. Language shift: Social determinants of linguistic change in bilingual Austria. Academic Press. Krauss, M. 1992. The world's languages in crisis. Language (Baltimore), 68(1), 4-10. Nercissiance, E. 1996. The analysis of Multilingualism in Tehran. Letter of Social Science, 8(8), 47-80 [In Persian]. Ricento, T. 2012. Political economy and English as a ‘global’language. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 1(1), 31-56. Wurm, S. 2002. Strategies for language maintenance and revival. Language endangerment and language maintenance: introduction, ed. by David Bradley and Maya Bradley, 11-23. مقالۀ حاضر با هدف شناسایی موقعیت اجتماعی گویش گنابادی، از گویشهای کهن ایرانی، با بررسی تأثیر مؤلفههای اجتماعی مانند سن، تحصیلات، جنسیت و شهرنشینی بر کاربرد گونۀ گنابادی در حوزههای مختلف مانند خانواده، مدرسه، هنر، اماکن اداری، کوچه و خیابان، مذهب و سرگرمی انجام پذیرفت. روش، تحلیل حوزهای و ابزار، پرسش‌نامه و مصاحبه‌ است. روش نمونهگیری، تصادفی بود که برمبنای آن، حجم نمونهای متشکل از 240 آزمودنی، از سه ردة سنی به تفکیک هر گروه جنسیتی و به صورت مساوی از دو جامعة روستایی و شهری گناباد انتخاب گردید. نتایج پژوهش نشان داد که گنابادی، زبان غالب حوزههای غیررسمی و بهویژه خانواده‌است؛ هرچند در حوزههای رسمیتر مانند مدرسه و اداره، فارسی معیار، زبان غالب است. گرایش به ‌استفاده از زبان فارسی در بین زنان بیشتر از مردان، گروه سنی جوانان بیشتر از دیگر گروههای سنی، تحصیلکردگان بیشتر از غیرتحصیلکردگان، شهرنشینان بیش از روستاییان در تمامی حوزههاست. پس می‌توان گفت که گنابادی روند تدریجی زوال را در پهنۀ خراسان بزرگ طی میکند.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_5173_2ce2e4b43eee43b61005dd41520fe99d.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Negation in Persian Language نفی در زبان فارسی 223 247 5095 10.22124/plid.2021.14873.1426 FA آزاده میرزائی دانشیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2019 12 07 Languages use different strategies for representing the concept of negation. According to the typological approach of Payne (1985), we can classify negation into two categories: sentential negation and non-sentential negation. The sentential negation that has scope over the whole clause contains various possibilities like using affixes, negation particles, negative auxiliary verbs, higher negative verbs, negative nouns, negative adverbs, and negative quantifiers. Non-sentential negation is divided into two subdivisions, including derivational negation and negation in subordinate clauses. This descriptive study attempted to introduce the concept of negation in the Persian language according to the natural language data using the Persian Proposition Bank and different examples in web pages. The findings showed that the dominant pattern of negation in Persian is affixation, but other strategies of the sentential negating introduced by the Payne can also be found in Persian. The particle na ‘not’, main verbs such as xoddɑɹi kardan ‘avoid’, the auxiliary verb nakaɹdan ‘do not’, adverbs such as abadan ‘not at all’ and the negative quantifier hič ‘no’ are some examples of negation possibilities in Persian. This study also showed that the occurrence of a negative verb or quantifier does not necessarily lead to a negative verb. 1. Introduction There are various possibilities for expressing the concept of negation in different languages. Typological studies show that each language usually has a dominant way to negate the sentence and its component parts, but at the same time, it uses other possibilities. This study examines the concept of negation in the Persian language according to the typological approach of Payne (1985) and attempts to find out what strategies we can use in the Persian language. 2. Theoretical framework According to the typological approach of Payne (1985), negation is classified into two categories: sentential negation and non-sentential negation. The sentential negation has scope over the whole clause contains various possibilities like using affixes, negation particles, negative auxiliary verbs, higher negative verbs, negative nouns, negative adverbs, and negative quantifiers. Non-sentential negation is divided into two subdivisions, including derivational negation and negation in subordinate clauses. 3. Methodology This descriptive study attempts to introduce the concept of negation and examines how this concept is represented in the Persian language. This study is based on the natural language data using the Persian Proposition Bank (Mirzaei and Moloodi, 2016) and different examples on the web pages. The theoretical framework of this study is based on the typological approach of Payne (1985) to the concept of negation. According to Payne (1985), there are various possibilities for negation like using affixes, negation particles, negative auxiliary verbs, higher negative verbs, negative nouns, negative adverbs, negative quantifiers, and also derivational negation and negation in subordinate clauses as the non-sentential negation. This study examines the natural language data to find these different possibilities of negation in the Persian language. 4. Results & Discussion Persian Language as an analytic language uses specific grammatical words and function words, or particles, rather than inflection to express syntactic relations like modality, tense, aspect, voice, etc., within the sentences. But it seems that the dominant strategy to negate the verb is the use of the prefix na-, and conversely, the use of negation particles is not very common in modern Persian. Moreover, intuitively, it seems that negative auxiliary verbs, negative verbs, and negative nouns as the different strategies to express the concept of negation do not exist in the Persian language. Contrary to popular belief, this study shows that the Persian language like an analytic language uses some grammatical words to express the concept of negation. In other words, the findings show that the common pattern of negation in Persian is affixation, but the other strategies of the sentential negating introduced by Payne (1985) can also be found in the Persian language. The particle na ‘not’, negative verbs such as xoddɑɹi kaɹdan, paɹhiz kaɹdan, ɂemtenɑ kaɹdan ‘avoid’, etc., the auxiliary verb nakaɹdan ‘do not’, adverbs such as abadan, haɹgez, ɂomɹan, ɂaslan ‘not at all’, etc., and the negative quantifier hič ‘no’ are some examples of negation possibilities in Persian. There are some points to note here. When the concepts of tense, aspect, mood, and voice are expressed using modal and auxiliary verbs, the negative prefix na- ‘not’ has a definite pattern when negating the verb. The negative prefix na- is added to the future tense auxiliary verb xɑstan ‘want’ and the voice auxiliary verb šodan ‘become’. It also added to the verb itself when there is the past tense auxiliary verb bud ‘was’ in the sentence. When there are Modal auxiliary verbs like tavɑnestan ‘could’, bɑyestan ‘should’ in the sentence, the negative prefix na- can be added to the modal verb or main verb. The use of particle na ‘not’ belongs to colloquial and spoken language. There are at least two types of the particle na ‘not’; one which has scope over the whole sentence and the other one which has scope over the verb. In addition to negation, the higher negative verbs also carry any inflections, indicating tense, mood, and aspect. The main predicate of the sentence appears as the complement of the higher negative verb. If a declarative and imperative sentence contains the negative quantifier hič ‘no’, we negate the verb by adding the prefix na- too, but in interrogative sentences, the verb can be in negative or positive form. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions The findings showed that there are three strategies to negate the verb or the whole sentence in the Persian language: 1. inflectional negation, 2. analytical negation, and 3. derivational negation. These different strategies allow the language users to use diverse constructions based on different contexts and discoursal purposes. This correlation can be considered in future studies. Select Bibliography Bond, O. 2009, Mapping Negation in Conceptual Space, In Peter K. Austin, Oliver Bond, Monik Charette, David Nathan & Peter Sells (eds), Proceeding of Conference on Language Documentation and Linguistic Theory 2, 51-60, London: SOAS. Mansouri, M. 2004. Negation in Persian Language based on Typology, Proceedings of 6th Iranian Conference on Linguistics, Tehran: Allameh Tabatab`i University Press. [In Persian] Miestamo, M. 2005, Standard Negation: the Negation of Declarative verbal Main Clauses in a Typological Perspective. In: Empirical Approaches to Language Typology 31, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Miestamo, M. 2007, Negation: An Overview of Typological Research. Language and Linguistic Compass, 1/5, 552-570. Mirzaei, A. & A. Moloodi 2016. Persian proposition Bank. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Language Resources and Evaluation. Portorož (Slovenia). May. pp. 3828-3835. Mirzaei, A. 2021. The Relationship between Polarity and Clausal Modality in Persian, Journal of Western Iranian Languages and Dialects, 9(1), 113-135. doi: 10.22126/jlw.2020.5372.1442. [In Persian] Rezaee, V., Azadmanesh, M. 2018. A typological approach to negation in Persian: semantic map. Iranian Journal of Comparative Linguistic Research, 8(15), 55-67. doi: 10.22084/rjhll.2017.5427.1323. [In Persian] Rowshan, B. and Bagheri, S. 2014. Does Any Affirmative Sentence Have a Negative Correspondent?. Journal of Adab Pazhuhi, 7(25), 161-177. [In Persian] Sedigh - Ziabari, R. 2009. Studying Negation in modern Persian language: Discoursal and Syntactic Approach, (PhD thesis), Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran. [In Persian] زبان‌ها در بازنمایی مفهوم نفی از امکانات مختلفی استفاده می‌کنند. پاین با نگاهی رده‌شناختی، به مفهوم نفی پرداخته و آن را به دو گروه «نفی جمله‌ای» و «نفی غیرجمله‌ای» تقسیم کرده‌است. در نفی جمله‌ای که سیطرۀ عملکرد آن بر کل بند است، امکانات مختلفی چون وندافزایی، استفاده از ادات نفی، فعل اصلی و کمکی منفی‌ساز، اسم منفی‌ساز، قیدهای منفی‌ساز و کمّی‌نماهای منفی‌ساز مطرح می‌شود. نفی غیرجمله‌ای دو زیربخش دارد که شامل نفی اشتقاقی و نفی در بند پیرو است. در این پژوهش، تلاش می‌کنیم با رویکردی داده‌بنیاد و براساس نمونه‌های موجود در «پیکرۀ گزاره‌های معنایی زبان فارسی» و در صفحات وب، امکانات نفی را در زبان فارسی معرفی کنیم. بررسی داده‌ها نشان داد که الگوی غالب منفی‌سازی در زبان فارسی وندافزایی است اما دیگر امکانات نفی جمله‌ایِ معرفی‌شدۀ پاین را هم می‌توان در زبان فارسی مشاهده کرد. ادات «نه»، فعل‌های اصلی مانند «خودداری کردن»، فعل کمکی «نکرد»، قیدی مانند «ابدا» و کمّی‌نمای «هیچ»، نمونه‌ای از امکانات منفی‌سازی در زبان فارسی هستند. همچنین بررسی داده‌ها علاوه‌بر صحه گذاشتن بر وجود امکانات نفی تحلیلی در زبان فارسی، نشان داد که لزوما با حضور کمّی‌نما و قیدهای معرف مفهوم نفی، فعل جمله منفی نمی‌شود.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 An Analysis of Vowel Raising in Sabzevari Persian within Generative Phonology بررسی افراشتگی واکه در گویش سبزواری در چارچوب واج‌شناسی زایشی 249 267 4863 10.22124/plid.2021.16485.1458 FA شیدا احمدی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، تهران، ایران عالیه کرد زعفرانلوکامبوزیا دانشیار زبان شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه تربیت مدرس، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2020 05 07 In this research, various types of vowel raising in Sabzevari dialect are analyzed in different contexts in the framework of Generative Phonology (Chomsky & Halle, 1968). The main concern in this paper is to investigate various phonological contexts in which vowel raising takes place in this dialect. The data of this research are collected via two sources: written sources about Sabzevari dialect and recorded speech of some Sabzevari speakers. To this end, the phonological and phonetic forms of the data were first compared to one another and analyzed afterwards. Standard Persian was taken as evidence in this research. The results of this research reveal that vowel raising applies in two different phonological contexts: when low or mid vowels are adjacent to high consonants, that is to say, alveo-palatal, palatal and velar consonants. and when mid or low vowels are adjacent to nasal consonants. Overall, nine types of vowel raising take place in Sabzevari dialect. 1. Introduction The aim of this paper is to analyze vowel raising as a phonological process in Sabzevari dialect of Iran within the frame work of Generative Phonology (Chomsky & Halle, 1968). Crystal (2003: 386) explains that Raising in phonetic and phonology is a vertical process that affects tongue height and is opposed to lowering; thus a vowel is raised in the context of a following high vowel. He also adds that as languages change in the course of time, vowels that were in a low position, might raise to a higher position in comparison with their original place in the mouth. Trusk (2006: 300) believes that any phonological process through which the place of a vowel is raised to a higher position in the mouth, is called Raising. He explains that many of the evolutions that took place during the Great Vowl Shift in English, included Raising. He then mentions change of [e:] to [i:]. Trusk declares that Raising can be a synchronic process as well. He mentions Raising of mid vowels before low vowels in Bask as an example for this shift. Two words that show this kind of Raising in Bask are exte 'house' and asto 'donkey'. When followed by the article- a, they will be pronounced as ext[i]a and ast[u]a. Analyzing Sabzevari data shows that Vowel Raising is a frequent phonological process in this dialect. Based on this fact, the main question of this paper is: in which phonological contexts does Vowel Raising take place in Sabzevari dialect? 2. Theoretical framework Generative Phonology is a classical theoretical framework in phonology which is based on Generative Grammar; thus it has mechanical and mathematical type rules for describing and formulating phonological processes and alternations. This framework was first introduced by The Sound Pattern of English (Chomsky & Halle, 1968). Just like Generative Grammar, Generative Phonology tends to be a simple frame work for analyzing phonological processes. This simplicity manifests itself in the form of rules being used to describe phonological alternations. Generative Phonology is a linear theory due to the fact that its representations are written in the form of sequences of phonological units with boundaries between them. The aim of the theory is to analyze and describe syntactic structures in such a way that a relation is made between these two facets of language. In Generative phonology, phonological forms of words are considered as underlying structures that after applying phonological rules, turn into phonetic forms or surface structures; thus phonological rules show the relation between underlying structures and surface structures as well as describing the process of phonological alternations. 3. Methodology This research is analytical - descriptive and its data are collected using two sources: written sources about Sabzevari dialect and recorded speech of some Sabzevari speakers. At first place, Sabzevari data were collected from the above-mentioned sources and after that were compared to standard Persian forms. This comparison revealed that Persian words are the underlying forms, whereas Sabzevari words are the surface forms. Analyzing the data shows that two main categories of Vowel Raising take place in Sabzevari Persian and within each of these main categories, three types of Raising are distinguished. Overall, six types and nine various instances of Vowel raising happen in this dialect for which suitable phonological rules are written to describe them properly. 4. Results & Discussion The analysis of Sabzevari data reveals that overall, nine different instances of Vowel Raising has been found in this dialect; besides, Sabzevari shows two different phonological contexts and within each of these, three types of Raising take place. The first context is when low or mid vowels become adjacent to alveo-palatal, palatal and velar consonants (i.e. high consonants). In such a context, low or mid vowels raise to a higher position in the mouth due to the high position of their adjacent consonants. Overall, three types of Vowel Raising are distinguished in this context: 1) Raising of /e/, /o/ and /a/ to [i], 2) raising of /a/, /ɑ/,/e/ and /o/ to [u] , 3) raising of /a/ and /ɑ/ to [e]. The second context is when low or mid vowels become adjacent to nasal consonants: /n/ and /m/. In this context, three types of Raising are also evident: 1) Raising of /a/, /e/ and /o/ to [i], 2) Raising of /a/, /ɑ/, /e/ and /o/ to [u], 3) Raising of /a/ and /ɑ/ to [e]. 5. Conclusions & suggestions The results of this research show that Vowel Raising in Sabzevari Persian has two main phonological contexts, six main types and nine instances; thus considerable diversity is obvious in Sabzevari Vowel Raising. This research is the first step in the frame work of Generative Phonology that investigates the phenomenon of Vowel Raising in one of the dialects of Persian and can pave the way for other researchers in the field of phonology to focus on the issue and investigate its different features and facets in various theoretical frameworks, such as Natural Phonology, Historical Phonology, Cognitive Phonology and Optimality Theory among others. Researchers can also work on this phenomenon in other Iranian accents, dialects, and languages and explore the similarities and differences between them in this regard. In this way, typological investigations might be a new field of study and research in the future. Select Bibliography Bashir, J. 2016. Analysis of phonological opacity in Persian language. Related Research in linguistics, (7), 1-27. [in Persian]. Borughani, F. 2004. Phonological analysis of Sabzevari dialect. MA dissertation, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran. [in Persian]. Buckley, E. 20/4/2019. Polish O - Raising and Phonological Explanation, http://www.google.com. Cox, F., & Palethorpe, S. 20/4/2019. Reversal of Short Front Vowel Raising in Australian English, http://www.googl.com. Crystal, D. 2003. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Ezzatabadipur, T. 2014. Rule conversion in varieties of Iranian languages: Generative phonology, MA dissertation in Linguistics, Tehran: Tarbiyat Modares University. [in Persian]. Haddican, B., & Foulkes, P. 20/4/2019/. Mid vowel Raising and second vowel deletion in Oiartzun Basque. http://www.gen.lib.rus.ec. Noruzi Zidehi, T. 2004. The study of phonological process of Gilaki (Rasht) dialect in Autosegmental phonology, MA dissertation in Linguistics, Tehran: Tarbiyat Modares University. [in Persian]. در این پژوهش انواع فرایند افراشتگی واکه در گویش سبزواری با توجه به بافت‌های مختلف آن در چارچوب واج‌شناسی زایشی تحلیل می‌‍‌شوند. مسألۀ اصلی نگارنده در این مقاله مطالعۀ انواع بافت‌های واجی‌ای است که فرایند افراشتگی واکه را در این گویش ایجاد می‌کند. داده‌های این پژوهش به دو روش گردآوری شده‌اند: منابع مکتوب دربارۀ گویش سبزواری و ضبط گفتار چند گویشور سبزواری. در بررسی داده‌ها صورت‌های واجی و آوایی در گویش سبزواری با هم مقایسه و سپس تحلیل شده‌اند. در این پژوهش، داده‌های فارسی معیار بهعنوان شاهد استفاده شده‌اند. نتایج این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که دو بافت واجی عمده وجود دارد که در آنها فرایند افراشتگی واکه رخ می‌دهد: در اثر هم‌نشینی واکه‌های افتاده یا میانی با همخوان‌های افراشتۀ لثوی-کامی، کامی و نرمکامی و نیز در اثر هم‌نشینی واکه‌های افتاده یا میانی با همخوان‌های خیشومی. در مجموع نُه نمونه فرایند افراشتگی واکه در گویش سبزواری روی می‌دهد.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 6 1 2021 03 21 Interpretation of Irony in Persian based on a Perceptual Perspective تعبیر کنایه در زبان فارسی بر مبنای دیدگاهی ادراکی 269 286 5097 10.22124/plid.2021.18125.1496 FA راحله گندمکار استادیار زبان‌شناسی همگانی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2020 11 08 Irony in the tradition of studying rhetoric refers to a word that has two meanings and the audience realizes its implicit meaning according to the circumstances. A look at the background of the study of irony shows that this device, which today is no longer limited to the field of literature and is generally used in everyday conversations of speakers, has always been confused with other processes such as metaphor, metonymy, implication, and so on. The present article, while referring to these overlaps, seeks to provide a clear and independent definition of irony, and, in particular, tries to provide an analytic-descriptive perspective with the help of various data from the in-context everyday sentences of Persian speakers. The perceptual approach lets us examine how irony is understood and interpreted. This study shows that speakers interpret irony by relying on perceptual context information, whether linguistic context (context A), situational context (context B) or pre-existing information in memory (context C). In the meantime, the existence of specific information in context C plays a major role, according to which, each sentence can be interpreted in its contradictory meaning. 1. Introduction In the tradition of studying rhetoric, "irony" is presented in the form of two concepts: One is in the general sense - according to which a speech is ironic when it has two meanings, and the audience realizes its implicit meaning according to its explicit meaning - and the other carries a technical sense. A review of studies in the field of Persian literature shows that this widely used technique in the everyday conversations of language speakers has been confused with other concepts and processes, and finally, the overlaps have prevented the definition from being clear, precise and independent, so that "irony" can be distinguished from implicit meaning, metonymy, metaphor and other linguistic devices and meanings. The present article first tries to outline these overlaps and depict the inaccurate border of "irony" in the tradition of Persian literary studies and while examining this process in the field of linguistics and especially semantics, give a clear definition of it. In the next step, it will examine the interpretation of "irony" from a perceptual perspective to find out how this process can be interpreted by Persian speakers. 2. Theoretical Framework Perceptual perspective is a design introduced by Koorosh Safavi, which is generally referred to as Perceptual Semantics. According to this view, the study of meaning begins with "human perception" with the help of his senses, and for this reason, it is called "perceptual". In Perceptual Semantics, "perception" through "inference" leads to a stage called "interpretation". This view studies meaning based on onomasiology and is a kind of sentence-based semantics. For this reason, it distances itself from the tradition of studying meaning in terms of words and tends toward the views of philosophers such as Kripke and Quine. If we consider each of the sensory information we obtain with the help of the five senses as a p, this p is interpreted as q, and a conditional relationship is established between the two, which is a conditional proposition displayed as p → q. This conditional proposition can be a prelude to the next inference. Thus, if we first interpret p → q and then q → r, we can reach the interpretation of p → r. 3. Methodology The present study has been conducted within the framework of a perceptual approach in the form of a library and descriptive-analytical, relying on various data from spoken Persian. 4. Results and Discussion Examining how to interpret irony from a perceptual perspective shows that, in addition to the function of the contextual layers A, B and C in the interpretation of the irony, the information of context C is particularly important. The situational context, or context B, plays an important role in interpreting irony. For example, if you and I are walking down the street, and, while someone approaches, I produce the sentence, “Go to that side and let this pencil pass,” you understand through the situational context that you have to interpret the sentence invertedly, because you see someone who is fat and can hardly pass between us. In addition to this type of information, there are other things that can help you interpret my sentence correctly through situational context. If I wink at you while producing this sentence, make movements with my eyes and eyebrows that my sentence is a little mischievous, or say that sentence with a smile, you can understand that I mean something else from what I have said. Now, if we were to deal only with linguistic context or context A, the situation would be a little different, because we are only dealing with a sentence that cannot be accompanied by visual information, blinking, facial gestures or a smile. In such cases, the sentences before and after our intended sentence as well as the information of context C can be helpful. In the interpretation of irony, we have already recorded in our memory a sentence like this that "every sentence can be interpreted in a contradictory way". The presence of such a sentence in context C helps us interpret a sentence in its inverted or contradictory sense based on the circumstances in which we find ourselves, whether it is interpreted from a positive meaning to a negative meaning or vice versa; that is to say each sentence can have an inverted interpretation, and it is the linguistic context, situation, or both that determines how we should interpret the sentence in an inverted or contradictory form. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions Examination of various data shows that "irony", that is the circumstances in which a word is used in a reverse meaning, cannot be a kind of metonymy, because in the metonymy, we encounter a kind of reduction, whereas in irony, there is no reduction in the sentence. Irony cannot be considered a metaphor, because the process of "metaphor" is formed based on a similarity between the tenor and the vehicle but in irony, we see contradiction and not similarity. Irony cannot be an implicit meaning because implicit meaning can be plotted in line with the explicit meaning and not in contradiction with it. Thus, irony is a process that must be addressed and examined independently. Select Bibliography Gandomkar, R. 2020. Descriptive Dictionary of Semantics. Tehran: Elmi Publications. [In Persian] Saeed, J. 2016. Semantics (4th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. Safavi, K. 2010. Wandering in the Philosophy of Literature. Tehran: Iranian Poets Association. [In Persian] Safavi, K. 2014. An Introduction to the Semiotics of Literature. Tehran: Elmi Publications. [In Persian] Safavi, K. 2017. Text Interpretation. Tehran: Elmi Publications. [In Persian] کنایه در سنت مطالعة بلاغت به سخنی اطلاق می‏شود که دارای دو معنی است و مخاطب با توجه به شرایط از مفهوم صریح آن به مفهوم ضمنی‏اش پی می‏برد. نگاهی به پیشینة مطالعة کنایه نشان می‏دهد که این صنعت که امروزه دیگر صرفاً محدود به حوزة ادب نیست و در گفت‌وگوهای روزمرة سخنگویان کاربرد عام دارد، همواره با فرایندهای دیگری نظیر استعاره، مجاز، معنی ضمنی و جز آن خلط شده‌است. در مقالة حاضر، ضمن اشاره به این همپوشی‏ها به دنبال آنیم تا تعریف مشخص و مستقلی از کنایه به دست دهیم. بهویژه می‏کوشیم تا از منظری تحلیلی ـ توصیفی و به کمک داده‏های متعدد از جملات روزمرة سخنگویان زبان در چارچوب نگرشی ادراکی به بررسی چگونگی درک و تعبیر کنایه بپردازیم. این پژوهش نشان می‏دهد که سخنگویان با تکیه بر اطلاعات بافت‏های ادراکی، اعم از بافت زبانی یا بافت A، بافت موقعیتی یا B و اطلاعات از پیش‏موجود در حافظه یا بافت C کنایه را تعبیر می‏کنند. در این میان، وجود اطلاعی خاص در بافت C نقشی عمده ایفا می‏کند که براساس آن، هر جمله‏ای را می‏توان در معنی متناقضش تعبیر کرد.

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