دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 From Fā'-e 'Ajamī to Arabic 'Ḍād': Complexities of Phonemic Splits in New Persian از فاء اعجمی تا ضاد عربی: پیچیدگی‌های انواع انشقاق واجی در فارسی‌نو 7 31 9520 10.22124/plid.2026.32792.1745 FA مهرداد نغزگوی کهن استاد گروه زبان‌شناسی دانشگاه بوعلی سینا، همدان، ایران. Journal Article 2026 01 09 This study examines various types of phonemic splits within the consonant system of New Persian. Three types of primary splits are identifiable in the New Persian period. The first case involves an allophone of /b/, which traditional grammarians called Fā'-e 'Ajamī (the non-Arabic Fā'). This was the voiced labiodental fricative /β/, which later became obsolete by merging into the pre-existing phonemes /b/, /v/, and /f/. This research indicates that this split likely did not occur uniformly in Northeastern and Southern varieties of Early New Persian. The other two cases of primary consonant splits in New Persian relate to allophones of /d/. In this context, the split of the dental fricative allophone /δ/ / ɾ̪ / is relevant. This allophone, represented by <ذ> in Early New Persian, was later lost, with most of its instances pronounced as /d/, while some merged into the /z/ phoneme. The third primary split involves the separation of the voiced allophone /ḍ/ from the phoneme /d/ and its subsequent merger into the Persian phoneme /t/. In this study, we demonstrate that this latter change occurred through a process we have termed an intermediary split. An intermediary split refers to the change during the early Islamic centuries where the loan phoneme /dˤ/ <ض> from Arabic split into four phonemes /d/, /dz/, /l/, and /t/, thereby disappearing itself. Since there was no pre-existing allophone of /dˤ/ involved, this process cannot be classified as a secondary split, nor does it fit the classical definition of a primary split. This paper shows that the native allophone [δ] /[ ɾ̪ ] was significant in determining the ultimate pathway of change for the loan phoneme /dˤ/ <ض>. The merger of some instances of the native allophone /δ/ / ɾ̪ / into the Persian /z/ phoneme paved the way for the substitution of those instances of /dˤ/ that were pronounced as [δ] in Persian, leading to their merger into /z/ as well. Through analogy, the remaining sounds whose ultimate origin was Arabic /dˤ/ also merged into the Persian /z/ phoneme. Following the loss of δ / ɾ̪ due to the primary split around the 6th century AH (12th century CE), all new Arabic loanwords containing /dˤ/ <ض> (by analogy with earlier loans) were directly accommodated into Persian as /z/. A similar, though less complex, change occurred for the loan phoneme /ðˤ/ <ظ>. Extended abstract 1.Introduction Phonological component of a language is susceptible to change, just like its other components; However, this change typically occurs at a slower rate compared to other linguistic changes, such as lexical, semantic, morphological, or syntactic changes. In phonological changes the number or distribution of phonemes is altered. Phonemic split is considered as one of the chief kinds of change in the phonological system of a language. The origin of splits may be internal, emerging from within the linguistic system, or external, influenced by factors such as language contact, or borrowing. Sometimes, both internal and external factors may contribute to phonological changes. This study examines various types of phonemic splits within the consonant system of New Persian by taking into account both these factors. It should also be noted, however, that the primary cause of such changes is not always readily identifiable. 2.Theoretical framework In historical linguistics, primary and secondary splits are traditionally distinguished. In a secondary split, the allophones of a phoneme become two or more distinct phonemes. This typically occurs as a result of the loss of the conditioning environment of each allophone, leading to the unpredictability of the presence of these segments and, consequently, an increase in the number of consonant phonemes. In contrast, a primary split refers to a process in which some allophones of a single phoneme merge with existing phonemes of the same language. A primary split can also be viewed as a split followed by a merger. 3.Research Methodology This study employs a qualitative, descriptive-analytical methodology. Our data is primarily based on Early New Persian. Texts of Early New Persian survives in two distinct varieties: Northeastern and Southern varieties. However, Southern Persian texts which are very limited in number, had closer relations with Middle Persian. This variety played a marginal role in history of Persian language and it did not continue to be used in the same way as Northeastern Persian did. This latter variety gained the status of the common language of Iranians and developed into the Modern Persian of Today. 4.Discussion and Results The linguistic distinction between Northeastern and Southern Persian is also observable even in the phonemic splits of /b/ within both varieties. In Southern variety, the phoneme /b/ had two allophones: [b] and [w]. Later, [w] evolved into [ß]. During the subsequent developments, the /b/ allophones merged and mostly resulted in [b]. However, in some cases, the allophone [β] split from /b/ and merged with the pre-existing phonemes of /f/ and /v/. However, it should be kept in mind that the Northeastern Persian was not a uniform language throughout Iran. As far as the primary split of /b/ is concerned, we do not have strong evidence that the development of [ß] in Northeastern variety followed the same path as in Southern variety. More precisely, the intermediate stage of the transformation of [w] into [ß] did not occur in this variety. However, similar to Southern Persian, in Northeastern Persian, some cases of the [β] allophone split from /b/ and merged with /f/ and /v/. Another primary split attested in Early New Persian involves the allophones of /d/, namely, [δ]/ /ɾ̪/ and [ḍ]. In some cases, the allophone [δ] split from /d/ and merged with the pre-existing phoneme of /z/. In other cases, this allophone reverted back to /d/ and no trace of [δ] remains in the Modern Persian. In the same vein, some instances of the devoiced allophone [ḍ] merged with the phoneme /t/. This primary split was a temporary phenomenon and attested only in some specific areas of Iran. However, this latter case had some bearing for the last phonemic split we are concerned with. This involves the accommodation of with Arabic where Arabic /dˤ/ <ض>, and ðˤ<ظ> in Early New Persian. The Arabic /dˤ/ merged with four different phonemes of /d/, /dz/, /l/ and /t/. The instances of /t/ were actually the ones developed from the split of the allophone [ḍ] from the phoneme /d/, mentioned earlier. In a later stage, all instances of the Arabic /dˤ/ merged with the Persian phoneme of /z/. I have termed this path of change as intermediary split, while it does not exactly fit the definition for primary, or secondary split. Furthermore, still in another development, the Arabic phoneme of /ðˤ/ shifted to allophone of [δ] which later merged with the phoneme /z/. 5.Discussion and Results Intermediary split does not fully align with the traditional concept of a primary split, although it shares several key characteristics with it. During this process, the Arabic phoneme /dˤ/ underwent a split, resulting in the merging of four distinct phonemes already present in Persian. Among these, the phoneme /d/ played a particularly significant role. Alongside its allophone (i.e., /δ/ / /ɾ̪/), it created the necessary phonological environment that facilitated the eventual replacement and merger of /dˤ/ with the Persian phoneme /z/. Select Bibliography Anttila, R. Historical and comparative linguistics. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2009. Barthélemy, A. Gujastak Abāliš. Paris: Vieweg, 1887. Bodrogligeti, A. The Persian Vocabulary of the Codex Cumanicus. Budapest: Akadémia Kiadó, 1971. Kang, Y. “Loanword phonology”. In: Marc van Oosetendorp, Colin Even, Elizabeth Hume. Keren Rice (eds.). Blackwell companion to phonology. 2258-2282. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Meier, F. “Aussprachefragen des älteren Neupersisch”. Oriens, 1981, Vol. 27-28, 70-132. Naghzguy-Kohan, M. Historical linguistics. Tehran: Agah Publication, 2026. [In Persian]. Pisowicz, A. Origins of the New and Middle Persian phonological systems. Krakow: Nakladem Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 1985. Sadeqi, A. A. Evolution of Persian language. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Azad-e Iran, 1978. [In Persian]. Vajda, G. “Les lettres et les sons de la langue arabe d’aprés Abū Hatim al-Rāzi”. Arabica, 1961, VIII/2, 113-130. در انشقاق اولیه، واج‌گونه‌(های) یک واج از آن جدا و در واج‌ دیگری در همان زبان ادغام می‌گردد. در فارسی نو سه نوع انشقاق اولیه قابل تشخیص است. مورد اول مربوط به واج‌گونه‌ای از b است که دستورنویسان سنتی آن را فاء اعجمی نامید‌ه‌اند. فاء اعجمی همخوان دولبی واک‌دار سایشی ß بوده که بعدها با ادغام در واج‌های /b/، /v/ و /f/ (که از قبل در زبان موجود بوده‌اند) از بین رفته‌است. به احتمال زیاد این انشقاق در فارسی شمال شرقی و فارسی جنوبی قرون متقدم هجری به یک صورت به‌وقوع نپیوسته‌است. دو مورد دیگر انشقاق اولیۀ همخوان‌ها در فارسی نو مربوط به واج‌گونه‌های d است. در این راستا، انشقاق واج‌گونة سایشی دندانی [δ/ɾ̪] قابل طرح است. این واج‌گونه که در فارسی نو متقدم با <ذ> نمایش داده می‌شده، بعدها به تلفظ اصلی d بازگشته‌است. مواردی از آن نیز در واج /z/ ادغام شده‌است. انشقاق اولیۀ سوم مربوط به جدا شدن واج‌گونۀ واکرفته [ḍ] از واج /d/ و ادغام آن در واج /t/ فارسی است. که تغییر اخیر جزو مسیرهای تغییر در انشقاقی بوده‌است که آن را انشقاق بینابینی نام نهاده‌ایم. انشقاق بینابینی ناظر بر تغییری است که طی آن در قرون اولیۀ هجری، واج قرضی dˤ <ض> به چهار واج /d/، /dz/، /l/ و /t/ انشقاق یافته و خود از بین رفته‌است. واج‌گونۀ δ/ɾ̪ در تعیین مسیر نهایی تغییر واج قرضی dˤ <ض> اهمیت اساسی داشته‌است. با ادغام بعضی از موارد واج‌گونۀ بومی [δ/ɾ̪] در واج /z/ فارسی، راه برای ابدال مواردی از dˤ (که در فارسی به‌صورت δ تلفظ می‌شده‌اند) هموار شده و این موارد نیز در واج /z/ ادغام شده‌اند. با فرایند قیاس بقیۀ آواهایی نیز که اصل‌شان dˤعربی بوده‌است، در واج /z/ فارسی ادغام شده‌اند. در حدود قرن ششم هجری، با از بین رفتن δ/ɾ̪ بر اثر انشقاق اولیه، dˤ <ض> در تمامی کلمات قرضی جدید عربی )به قیاس با کلمات متقدم قرضی( مستقیما به‌صورت z درآمده‌اند. همین تغییر آخر با پیچیدگی کمتری برای ðˤ <ظ> قرضی اتفاق افتاده‌است.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9520_87b95bc525e746993abbfd0f0d897c4d.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 A Diachronic Study of the Accusative Case in Balochi نگاهی درزمانی به حالت مفعولی در بلوچی 33 56 9519 10.22124/plid.2026.32794.1746 FA فهیمه پیری زنده دل دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدة زبان‌های خارجی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران اسفندیار طاهری دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدة زبان‌های خارجی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. عباسعلی آهنگر استاد زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدة ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، زاهدان، ایران Journal Article 2026 01 11 This study investigates the erosion and simultaneous innovation within the Balochi object case marking system, examining how object markers have been lost over time (diachronic) while new ones have emerged. (synchronic).The research employs a descriptive-analytical approach, grounded in the linguistic theories of Stilo (2008) and Kolikov (2009). Data was utilized from existing corpora, grammatical descriptions, and fieldwork conducted among speakers of Western, Eastern, and Southern Balochi. Based on this methodology, our study identifies three primary pathways of innovation in the Balochi object marking system. These include: a trend towards Differential Object Marking (DOM), where object marking varies based on animacy and definiteness; innovation in object marking through the use of clitics, irrespective of verb tense; and the erosion of original object markers in recent linguistic periods. This research highlights that the Balochi object marking system, like many others, is subject to concurrent erosion and innovation, showcasing the dynamic nature of the language across time. Extended abstract 1.Introduction “This article investigates the comparative study of the accusative case in Iranian languages, with a focus on its historical development. As a branch of the Indo-European language family, Iranian languages feature diverse grammatical and syntactic systems that have undergone notable changes over time. One significant evolution concerns the modification in how sentence constituents express their grammatical roles, particularly the accusative case. The objective of this research is to explain the nature of this transformation and offer a clear perspective on the state of the accusative case in various historical stages of Persian and other Iranian language. 2.Theoretical Framework The research adopts Stilo’s three‑dimensional model for understanding case developments: (1) The Axis of Case Reduction, capturing decay of the two‑case system inherited from Middle Iranian; (2) The Axis of Case Renewal and Expansion, covering emergent case markers and extended functions; and (3) The Noun–Pronoun Axis, focusing on asymmetries between nominal and pronominal marking. These dimensions are used to explain both diachronic shifts and synchronic contrasts found in Balochi varieties. 3.Methodology Data come from three complementary sources: major linguistic corpora (e.g www.irancorpora.com), well‑established descriptions (Jahani, 2003; Baranzehi, 2003), and new fieldwork with speakers of Saravani Central, Lashari, Makrani, and Sarhaddi sub‑dialects. Morphosyntactic changes involving former Genitive and Locative environments were examined, focusing on inflectional developments and the structural positioning of nominal complements. Comparative analysis assessed case‑marking behavior in genitive, object, and prepositional phrases. 4.Results & Discussion Across Balochi dialects, case marking strategies reveal successive stages of renewal along Stilo’s reduction axis: External renovation: Eastern Balochi exhibits the Objective ending –ārā, originating from the grammaticalization path rādiy > rāy > =rā > –ārā. Internal renovation: The use of DOM reflects sensitivity to animacy and definiteness hierarchies (human > animal > inanimate; pronoun > proper > definite > indefinite). Syntactic innovation: Floating subject clitics occasionally attach to objects as case markers even in non past constructions, showing advanced grammaticalization. Together, these processes yield a hybrid alignment system balancing morphological economy and functional transparency. 5.Conclusions & Suggestions The Objective Case system in Balochi represents a dynamic equilibrium between erosion and renewal. Rather than erasing case distinctions, Balochi has integrated external, internal, and syntactic strategies into a cohesive adaptive system. Further quantitative research using broader corpora may clarify frequency patterns and of these mechanisms across dialects and discourse contexts Select Bibliography Aissen, J. Differential Object Marking: Iconicity vs. Economy. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 2003; 21(3), 435-483. Axenov, S. The Balochi Language of Turkmenistan: A Corpus-based Grammatical Description. Uppsala: Uppsala University, 2006. Farshidvard, Kh. Detailed Grammar of Today. Tehran: Sokhan Publications, 2003. [In Persian] Jahani, C. The Case System of Northern Balochi in a Historical and Areal Perspective. In: Karimi, S., Samiian, A. editors. The Case System of Balochi in a Diachronic Perspective. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers; 2003, 113-126. Jahani, C. & Korn, A. “Balochi”. In The Iranian Languages, ed. G. Windfuhr, 2013, 634–692. London: Routledge. Kulikov, L. Case Systems in a Diachronic Perspective: A Typological and Micro-areal Study. Language and Linguistics Compass, 2009, 3(4), 1104–1118. Malchukov، A. و Spencer، A. Introduction. In: Malchukov، A. و Spencer، A. editors. The Oxford Handbook of Case. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008, 1-27. Nourzaei, M. A Corpus-based Study of Balochi Dialects. PhD Dissertation, Uppsala University, 2017. Stilo, D. Case in Iranian, In The Oxford Handbook of Case, ed. A. Malchukov & A. Spencer, 700–715. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Windfuhr، G. Persian Grammar: History and State of its Study. The Hague: Mouton. 1979. فرسایش و نوسازی نظام حالت، یکی از بنیادی‌ترین فرایندهای تحول در تاریخ زبان‌های ایرانی است. این پژوهش برپایۀ چارچوب نظری استیلو (Stilo, 2008) و کولیکف (Kolikov,2009) با رویکردی توصیفی - تحلیلی به بررسی تحول درزمانی و تنوع هم‌زمانی حالت مفعولی در گونه‌های مختلف بلوچی می‌پردازد. داده‌های پژوهش از پیکره‌های معتبر، منابع توصیفی و داده‌های میدانی از گونه‌های غربی، شرقی و جنوبی گردآوری شده‌اند. یافته‌های این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که بلوچی در روند ایجاد و تحول حالت مفعولی، یک نظام چندوجهی را برای نشانه‌گذاری مفعول توسعه داده‌است. این نظام شامل سه راهبرد اصلی است: ۱- نوسازی بیرونی از طریق دستوری‌شدگی حرف‌اضافة rāy و ایجاد پایانة –ārā ؛ ۲- نوسازی درونی در قالب نظام مفعول‌نمایی افتراقی که با حساسیت به سلسله‌مراتب‌های جانداری و معرفگی، پایانه‌های حالت غیرمستقیم را به‌صورت هوشمندانه به‌کار می‌گیرد؛ 3- یک راهبرد نحوی جایگزین که در آن واژه‌بست‌های شناور فاعلی به ابزاری برای نشانه‌گذاری مفعول، حتی در زمان‌های غیرگذشته تبدیل شده‌اند.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9519_e4020dddb84ec307b755d8aad1e05a17.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 Word Order, Agreement and Case-Marking in Aftari ترتیب واژه‌ها، مطابقه و حالت‌نمایی درگویش‌ افتری 57 84 9466 10.22124/plid.2026.32636.1742 FA معصومه هاشمی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی عمومی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران محمد دبیرمقدم استاد زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات فارسی و زبان‌های خارجی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2025 12 24 This article presents a typological analysis of Aftari, a North western Iranian language, focusing on its word order, agreement and case marking system. The analysis, framed by the work of Dryer (1992), Comrie (1978) and Dabir-Moghaddam (1402), identifies Aftari as a predominantly head-final (OV) language, despite some minor VO characteristics. The dialect's primary feature is a split agreement system conditioned by tense and transitivity. A nominative-accusative pattern is used for intransitive verbs (past and present) and present-tense transitive verbs. In contrast, past-tense transitive verbs exhibit a tripartite system, distinctly marking the intransitive subject, transitive agent, and transitive patient. This complexity is enhanced by the use of pronominal clitics for person marking in specific constructions, notably with the verbs "xâstæn" (to want) (past and present), "tævânestæn" (to be able) (past intransitive and transitive), and transitive light verb like "kærdæn" and "zædæn" in intransitive compounds, (past). This dialect also benefits from case marking. Since the subject of intransitive verbs (past and present) and the subject of transitive verbs (past and present) have a direct case, while the object of transitive verbs (past and present) has an oblique case, this dialect exhibits a nominative-accusative case system. Extended Abstract 1.Introduction Language typology is a branch of linguistics which studies the systematic similarities and differences between the different languages of the world and compares the morphological and syntactic structures between different languages without considering their background. The analysis, framed by the work of Dryer (1992), Comrie (1978) and Dabir-Moghaddam (1402), examined word order, agreement system and case marking in Aftari. Aftari is a North western Iranian language spoken in Aftar, a village located in Semnan Province in Iran. This village has a population of nearly 1,222 people, according to the 2016 census. Three tribes, Esteqâqi, Bâʔi, and Ziyâri, reside in Aftar. With the expansion of urbanization and the migration of the people of this village to cities and other regions, and the influence of Persian as the standard language, this dialect is considered as an endangered language. In this article, we aim to answer the following questions: a) According to Dryer's (1992) branching direction theory, which typological pattern of word order does Aftari correspond to, that is, verb-final or verb-medial? b) What is the typological status of Aftari in the Eurasia region and the world as a whole? c) How does the system of agreement and case marking in Aftari align with the five patterns presented in Comrie's (1978) article? 2.Theoretical Framework Dryer (1992) introduced the branching direction theory as an alternative to the head-dependent theory (HDT). In the branching direction theory, non-group categories are considered the verb patterner and group categories are considered object patterner. In this theory, languages belong to one of two patterns: right-branching, (VO) languages, in which group categories come after non-group categories, and left-branching (OV) languages, in which group categories come before non-group categories. Dabir-Moghaddam (1402) has chosen Dryer's (1992) article to determine the typological pattern of word order in Persian and other Iranian languages. In order to examine correlation pairs according to the order of verb and object, Dryer divides the 625 languages in his database into six major geographical regions based on language groups: Africa, Europe-Asia excluding Southeast Asia and Oceania, Australia and New Guinea, North America, and South America. For each geographical region, he shows the correlation statistics between the desired component and the order of "object + verb" and "verb + object" separately. Another topic discussed in this article is agreement system and case marking. Comrie (1978, 1989) proposes five possible systems for assigning case to the main sentence structures. Comrie’s (1978) article, ergativity, is actually considered a standard approach in typological studies. In this article, he categorizes languages into five categories based on, transitive agent (A), intransitive subject (S), and object (P). The first one is the nominative - accusative case, in which the object of the transitive verb is marked differently from the subject of the intransitive verb and the agent of the transitive verb (S=A#O). The second one is the ergative - absolutive, where the transitive agent is marked differently from the intransitive subject and the object (S=O#A). The third one is neutral, where the three grammatical functions have the same marking (S=A=O). The fourth one is a tripartite one, with the three grammatical functions each having their own marking (S#A#O). Comrie has also raised another possibility, in which the subject of the intransitive verb, is marked differently from the agent of the transitive verb and the object of the transitive verb (S#A=O), which he did not name. In his article, when referring to the case marking in an Iranian language, Roshani (a Pamiri language), he called this type horizontal alignment. Dabir- Moghaddam (1402) called this type bipartite. 3.Methodology The research data was collected in the field, through semi-structured interviews. The linguistic corpus used in this article was prepared based on the questionnaire of the book Typology of Iranian Languages, written by Dabir- Moghadam (1402) and by referring to the native speakers of the Aftari language, both illiterate and literate. First, it was phonetically transcribed, then morphologically, syntactically, and semantically dissected and analyzed using linguistic criteria. 4.Results & Discussion The results of data analysis indicate that Aftari compared with the world languages, has17 parameters of the strong verb-final languages and 13 parameters of the strong verb- medial languages and in comparison, with Eurasian languages, it has 15 parameters of the strong verb-final languages and 14 parameters of the strong verb-medial languages. The analysis, identifies Aftari as a predominantly head-final (OV) language, despite some minor VO characteristics. After analyzing the case-marking and agreement system, the data indicate that Aftari has a split agreement system based on the characteristics of transitivity and tense, which is represented as nominative-accusative system and tripartite system. The subject of the intransitive verb (S) (past and present) and the agent of the transitive verb (A) (present) have a + direct agreement while the object (P/O) has no agreement, indicating a nominative-accusative agreement system. In contrast, past-tense transitive verbs exhibit a tripartite system, distinctly marking the intransitive subject, transitive agent, and transitive patient. Some cases do not follow the above rule, such as "xâstæn" (past and present) and "tævânestæn" in the past tense (intransitive and transitive) which use pronominal clitics. Transitive light verbs like "kærdæn" and "zædæn" in the intransitive compound verb (past), host pronominal clitics. This dialect also benefits from case marking. Since the subject of intransitive verbs (past and present) and the agent of transitive verbs (past and present) have a + direct case, while the object of transitive verbs (past and present) has an oblique case, this dialect exhibits a nominative -accusative case system. 5.Conclusions & Suggestions Based on the linguistic evidence presented in this study, it can be concluded that Aftari belongs to verb-final languages in terms of typological features of word order. After analyzing the case-marking and agreement system, the data indicate that Aftari has a split agreement system based on the characteristics of transitivity and tense, which is represented as nominative-accusative system and tripartite system. Aftari also benefits from case marking. This dialect exhibits a nominative accusative case system. Select Bibliography Dabir-Moghaddam, Mohammad. Typology of Iranian Languages (one volume), 2024, Tehran: Samt. Comrie, B. Ergativity. In: W. Lehmann (Ed.), syntactic Typology: Studies in the phenomenology of language, 1978, 329-394, Sussex: The Harvester Press. Comrie, B. Language Universals and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and morphology. 2nd ed. The University of Chicago press,1989. Dryer, M. The Greenbergian Word Order Correlations. Language, 1992: 68, 81-138. Dixon, R.M.W. Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Dixon, R.M.W. Ergativity. Language, 1979, 55, 59-138. Greenberg, J.H. ‘Some Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the order of Meaningful Elements. In: J. Greenberg, (Ed.), Universals of language, 1963, 73–113, Cambridge, MIT Press. Siewierska, A. Person agreement and the determination of alignment. Transactions of the Philological Society, 2003, 101, 339-370. Song, j. j. Linguistic Typology: Morphology and Syntax. Singapore: Longman, 2001. Vennemann, T. Topics, Subjects and Word order: From SXV to SVX via TVX. In: J. Anderson, & Ch. Jones (Eds.), Historical Linguistics. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Historical Linguistics, 1974, 339-376. Edinburgh, 3-7 September 1973, 2 Vols. North Holland, Amsterdam. پژوهش حاضر به مطالعۀ «ترتیب ‌واژه‌ها»، «نظام مطابقه» و «حالت‌نمایی» گویش افتری براساس مقالۀ درایر (1992)، الگوهای مطابقۀ پنجگانۀ کامری (1978) و دبیرمقدم (1402) می‌پردازد. داده‌های پژوهش به شیوۀ میدانی و با مصاحبۀ نیمه‌ساختار‌یافته جمع‌آوری شده‌است. بهلحاظ «ترتیب‌ واژه‌ها» جفت‌های همبستگی در دو ردۀ «فعل‌پایانی» و «فعل‌میانی» در منطقۀ زبان‌های اروپا ـ آسیا و جهان بررسی‌گردید. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد هرچند «افتری» آمیخته‌ای از مؤلفه‌های رده‌شناختی «فعل‌پایانی» و «فعل‌میانی» است، اما به زبان‌های «فعل‌پایانی» تمایل بیشتری دارد. دو عامل گذرایی و زمان، شیوۀ مطابقۀ افتری را رقم می‌زنند. فعل‌های لازم فارغ از هر زمانی و فعل‌های متعدی حال، مطابقۀ فاعلی ـ مفعولی را بازنمایی می‌کنند و فعل‌های متعدی گذشته، نظام سه‌بخشی را بهدست می‌دهند. افعال «خواستن» (حال و گذشته) و «توانستن» (گذشته) از «واژه‌بست‌های ضمیری» بهره می‌گیرند. همکردهای متعدی نظیر «کردن» و «زدن» در ساختار فعل مرکب لازم (گذشته)، میزبان «واژه‌بست‌های ضمیری» هستند. به‌لحاظ «حالت‌نمایی»، فاعل لازم (گذشته و حال) و فاعل متعدی (گذشته و حال) دارای «حالت + مستقیم» و مفعول متعدی (گذشته و حال) دارای «حالت غیرفاعلی» هستند، لذا «افتری» از نظام حالت «فاعلی ـ مفعولی» بهره می‌برد.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9466_567d78593e1e0a32ea01a954f5b62221.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 Passive Verb and Passive Suffix in Literary Gorani Texts فعل مجهول و پسوند مجهول‌ساز در متون گورانی ادبی 85 104 9537 10.22124/plid.2026.32910.1753 FA صمد کلانی دانشجوی دکتری فرهنگ و زبان‌های باستانی و ایران‌شناسی، دانشکدة ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران. علی شهیدی استادیار فرهنگ و زبان‌های باستانی و ایران‌شناسی، دانشکدة ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران Journal Article 2026 02 05 This study aims to etymologize the suffix that forms the passive stem in passive verbs used in the literary Gorani/Gurani texts. Within the framework of the phonetic-phonological rules of Iranian language evolution, this research seeks to trace the developmental path of this passive-forming suffix. To this end, the methods of passivization in the literary Gorani texts were examined, and passive verbs were analyzed morphologically. After investigating the verb stems, the passive suffix in Gorani was identified. By comparing this suffix with stem-forming morphemes used in Iranian languages across different historical periods, and considering the rules of historical sound changes and the phonetic characteristics of Gorani and other languages and dialects where this suffix is used, the origin and historical development of the passive suffix were determined. Based on this analysis, it was concluded that this suffix is not a remnant of just an ancient passive-forming suffix, but rather the result of the merger of two suffixes and the application of phonetic changes. To validate this finding, the passive suffixes in other modern Iranian languages and dialects were also examined from a historical perspective, and their historical development was reconstructed. Extended abstract 1.Introduction “Gorani,” in this context, refers to the language used as a common literary language for a collection of poems attributed to the Kurdish regions of western Iran. The heroic and mythical epics, also known as the “Kurdish Shahnameh”, constitute a significant portion of Gorani texts, and the data for this research were gathered from this category of texts. None of the contemporary dialects perfectly match literary Gorani. It appears that this language could not have been used as a spoken language and was exclusively for written purposes. Therefore, the language of Gorani texts requires distinct examination. However, existing similarities between the contemporary languages and dialects, and the varieties belonging to the Kurdish language group, can be utilized to clarify their historical evolution. 2.Theoretical Framework Three methods are employed in contemporary Iranian languages and dialects to express passive voice: 1) The third-person plural form of the active transitive verb without mentioning the subject/agent. 2) The adjective/participle of the main verb plus auxiliary verb constructions. 3) Using a passive-forming suffix to create the passive stem. This paper focuses on the third method, the verbal passive. In this method, the passive stem is formed by attaching the passive-forming suffix to the present stem (morphological root) of the transitive verb. The use of this method for forming the verbal passive is common not only in Middle Iranian languages but also in some of the contemporary Iranian languages and dialects. The passive-forming suffixes used in Iranian dialects to create passive stems include -g, -k, -ya, -re, -rē, -i, -ey, -eh for the present stem, and -yā, -ya, -kā, -rā, -is(t), -as(t), -es, -ehest for the past stem. Some researchers have identified the passive stem suffixes -ya and -yā as deriving from the Proto-Iranian *-i̭a stem-forming suffix. This paper aims to refine and clarify this view. 3.Research Methodology In Gorani texts, all three methods mentioned above have been used to express passive voice. This research focuses on the third method, the verbal passive, and the etymology of the passive-forming suffix used within it. Examples have been gathered from three texts: “Rostam-o Zanūn,” “Dâstân-e Babr-e Bayân,” and “Bahman-o Farâmarz.” For the Gorani text and its Persian translation, the critisisms made by other researchers have been used, with modifications made to the translation as necessary. Given that the precise pronunciation of these poems cannot be fully inferred from the script, and each narrator and reciter pronounces them differently, closer to their own dialect or that of the audience, variations are observed in the transliteration of the references. In this paper, the transliteration provided in the references is cited where available; otherwise, it is based on other sources. 4.Research Findings and Discussion In literary Gorani texts, alongside other methods of passivization, the morphological one, which is termed verbal passive is used to form past passive verbs by adding the passive-forming suffix -yā to the present stem (morphological root) of the verb, creating a passive past stem. Same passive-forming suffix (-yā-) is used not only in Gorani but also in other new Iranian languages and dialects, including some varieties of Kurdish, Lori, and Raji. Due to the similarity of this suffix to the Proto-Iranian passive stem-forming suffix (-i̭a), some researchers have considered them identical. Regardless of the unlikelihood of an inflectional suffix persisting without phonological change from the ancient to the modern period, a closer examination of the evidence can offer a better proposal for the evolution of this suffix. In the transition from the ancient to the middle period of Iranian languages, the syllable i̭a, at the beginning, middle, or end of words, has transformed into ī or ē. Consequently, one would expect the Proto-Iranian suffix -i̭a to have evolved into -ī or -ē in the Middle period. However, we observe that the passive stem-forming suffix in Western Middle Iranian languages is -īh. Considering evidence from the form -ī̆y of the passive-forming suffix in Middle Persian inscriptions and Pahlavi Psalter, the existence of a form without ‘h’ of this passive-forming suffix in some varieties during the Middle period can be considered probable. On the other hand, both the Proto-Iranian suffix -i̭a and the Middle Iranian suffix -īh/-īy were used to form the present stem. To form the past stem in the Middle period of Iranian languages, an additional stem-forming element was required. One of the Gorani stem-forming suffixes that forms a past stem by attaching to the present stem of the verb (morphological root) is “-ā.” In Middle Iranian languages, one of the stem-forming suffixes is -ād, which was used in Parthian to form derived past stems. The tendency to omit ‘d’ at the middle and end of words exists in Gorani, Awrami, and their neighboring dialects. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Gorani stem-former “-ā” is a replacement for the Middle period suffix -ād. 5.Conclusion By examining the phonological developments of Iranian languages and the rules governing them from the ancient to the modern period, and considering that the ancient suffix -i̭a evolved into -ī in the Middle period, it is hypothesized that when combined with the derived past stem-forming suffix -ād, it resulted in *-yād in passive past stems. Subsequently, in the present period, with the omission of ‘d’, it evolved into the final form –yā. This suffix is used not only in literary Gorani but also in some contemporary dialects, including the Kurdish language group, Awrami, Lori, and Raji. Although no passive present stems were found in the literary Gorani texts studied in this research, for the sake of completing the discussion, the passive present stem-forming suffix in similar and neighboring dialects was examined. This suffix actually consists of a single phoneme, and the vowel introduced as the second phoneme of this suffix is in fact part of the present tense verb ending. The first phoneme of this suffix is the result of the evolution of the Proto-Iranian suffix -i̭a, which has remained as -y/-ī in some dialects. Selected Bibliography Cantera, A. “The Passive Suffix -ī̆h- in Middle Persian.” In: Deciphering the Illegible. Festschrift in Honour of Dieter Weber. M. Macuch and A. Zeini (eds.). Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden. 2024, 43-49. Durkin-Meisterernst, D. Grammatik des Westmitteliranischen (Parthisch und Mittelpersisch). Wien: Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. 2014. Henning, W.B. “Das Verbum Das Middlepersischen Der Turfanfragemente.” In: Zeitschrift Für Indologie Und Iranistik. 1933; Vol. 9, 158-253. Hübschmann, H. Persische Studien. Strassburg: Verlag Von Karl J. Trübner, 1895. Kreyenbroek, P., & Ara, B. C. Literary Gurāni: Koinè or Continuum?. In H. Bozarslan & C. Scalbert-Yücel (eds.), Joyce Blau l’éternelle chez les Kurdes. Institut français d’études anatoliennes. 2018, 151-169. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifeagd.2222 MacKenzie, D. N. "The Origin of Kurdish." Transactions of the Philological Society, 1961, 68-86. MacKenzie, D. N. The Dialect of Awroman. kobenhavn: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. 1966. Mahmoudveysi, P., Bailey, D., Paul, L., Haig, G. The Gorani language of Gawraǰū, a village of West Iran Texts, grammar, and lexicon, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. 2012. Moyne, J. The so-called passive in Persian. Foundations of Language 12. 1974, 249–267. Skjærvø, P.O. “On the Middle Persian Imperfect.” In: Syntaxe Des Langues Indo-Iraniennes Anciennes. Colloque international, Sitges (Barcelona), 4-5 Mai 1993. Ed. E. Pirart, Barcelona: Editorial AUSA, 1997, 161-188. هدف این پژوهش، ریشه‌شناسی پسوند سازندة ماده مجهول در فعل‌های مجهول به‌کاررفته در متون گورانی است. این پژوهش، در چهارچوب قواعد تحولات آوایی-واجی زبان‌های ایرانی، در پی یافتن سیر تحول این پسوند مجهول‌ساز است. برای این منظور، شیوه‌های مجهول‌سازی در متون گورانی بررسی شد، فعل‌های مجهول از نظر ساخت‌واژه مورد توجه قرار گرفت. پس از بررسی ماده‌های افعال، پسوند مجهول‌ساز در گورانی مشخص شد. سپس با مقایسة این پسوند با ماده‌سازهای به‌کاررفته در زبان‌های ایرانی در دوره‌های مختلف تاریخی، و با توجه به قواعد تحولات تاریخی و ویژگی‌های آوایی گورانی و دیگر زبان‌ها و گویش‌هایی که این پسوند در آن‌ها به‌کار می‌رود، منشاء و سیر تحول تاریخی پسوند سازندة ماده مجهول مشخص شد. براین‌اساس، این پسوند بازماندة یک پسوند مجهول‌ساز باستانی نیست بلکه حاصل ادغام دو پسوند ماده‌ساز و اعمال تحولات آوایی است. برای صحت‌سنجی این نتیجه، پسوندهای مجهول‌ساز در دیگر زبان‌ها و گویش‌های ایرانی امروزی نیز از دیدگاه تاریخی بررسی و سیر تحول تاریخی آنها نیز بازسازی شد.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 Ideophones in Persian ایده‌آوها در زبان فارسی 105 113 9303 10.22124/plid.2025.32189.1735 FA محمد راسخ مهند استاد گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه بوعلی سینا، همدان، ایران Journal Article 2025 11 04 Ideophones are marked words in language that iconically depict a sensory scene and reside on the boundary between conventional and iconic language. This article examines the category of ideophones in the Persian language. After defining the category as a comparative concept, its five key characteristics - being marked, being a word, being depictive, being sensory, and belonging to an open lexical class - are elaborated upon. The distinction between ideophones and similar categories such as phonaesthemes, onomatopoeia, ontophones, and interjections is clarified. Based on Akita's (2009) semantic classification, Persian ideophones are categorized into three semantic classes: phonomimes (e.g., xert-xert), phenomimes (e.g., salâne-salâne), and psychomimes (e.g., qili-vili), with examples provided from the Hamadani dialect. Grammatically, these words are used in constructions such as complex verbs (e.g., men-men kardan, 'to mumble'), adverbials of manner (e.g., salâne-salâne âmad, 'he came sauntering'), subject complements (e.g., geneh-geneh ast, 'he is finicky'), and adjectives (e.g., bârân-e peške-peške, 'drizzling rain'). Finally, the role of ideophones as a bridge between gesture and conventional language, and their significance for understanding language evolution, is discussed. Extended abstract 1.Introduction This paper provides a comprehensive exploration of the category of ideophones in the Persian language, a class of marked lexical items that iconically depict sensory scenes and occupy the boundary between arbitrary and iconic linguistic systems. Ideophones, often marginalized in traditional linguistic discussions, are presented here as a vital and productive component of natural language, offering unique insights into the interplay between form, meaning, and sensory experience. 2.Theoretical framework The study begins by defining the ideophone as a comparative concept, akin to categories like 'adjective' or 'future tense,' which manifests differently across languages but retains a core set of identifiable properties (Haspelmath, 2010). For Persian, five defining characteristics are elaborated: ideophones are (1) marked in form, often deviating from regular phonological and morphological patterns; (2) bona fide words, stored in the mental lexicon; (3) depictive, conveying meaning through direct sensory simulation rather than arbitrary reference; (4) linked to a sensory scene, portraying external perceptions or internal emotions; and (5) members of an open lexical class, capable of expansion and innovation. 3.Discussion Crucially, the paper distinguishes Persian ideophones from superficially similar categories. They are differentiated from onomatopoeia, which imitate natural sounds and maintain a direct sound link to their referents. They are also separate from ontophones (e.g., dast-pâ-čoğine, 'clumsy'), which describe inherent personal traits, and from body epithets used as nicknames. Furthermore, they are distinct from interjections (e.g., âx, 'ouch'), which are exclamatory and syntactically isolated elements expressing emotional, cognitive, or conative meanings. Building on Akita’s (2009) semantic typology, Persian ideophones are systematically categorized into three classes, with illustrative examples drawn extensively from the Hamadani dialect: Phonomimes depict sounds produced by entities or actions (e.g., xert-xert, sound of crunching ice; men-men kardan, 'to mumble'; ğor-ğor, sound of a moving vehicle). Phenomimes depict visual aspects, manner of motion, texture, or appearance (e.g., salâne-salâne, 'sauntering'; peške-peške, 'drizzling' (rain); gerâgur, depicting a sudden, impactful movement). Psychomimes depict internal bodily sensations, feelings, or emotions (e.g., qili-vili, feeling of butterflies in the stomach; gez-gez, a tingling sensation; gene-gene*, 'finicky/fussy'). This classification aligns with Dingemanse’s (2012) proposed semantic hierarchy (sound > motion > visual properties > other senses > inner feelings), a cline from concrete/external to abstract/internal experiences. Persian is shown to possess ideophones across all these levels, confirming the category’s robust presence in the language. The grammatical behavior of Persian ideophones is multifaceted, demonstrating their integration into core syntactic structures. They function as: -The non-verbal element in complex verbs (e.g., men-men kardan, 'to mumble'; qili-vili raftan, 'to feel fluttery'). - Adverbials of manner (e.g., salâne-salâne âmad, 'he came sauntering'). - Subject complements (e.g., gene-gene ast*, 'he is finicky'). - Adjectives in attributive or predicative positions (e.g., bârân-e peške-peške, 'drizzling rain'; âdam-e gene-gene, 'a finicky person'). Morphologically, Persian ideophones frequently exhibit reduplication, whether complete (e.g., fes-fes) or partial (e.g., qili-vili), a feature that enhances their iconicity and markedness. 4.Conclusion In conclusion, the paper argues for the theoretical significance of ideophones beyond mere linguistic curiosities. Following Haiman (2018), it posits that ideophones may serve as a crucial bridge between gesture and conventional language, offering a window into language evolution. They potentially represent an intermediate stage in a developmental pathway: Gesture → Ideophone → Conventional Vocabulary. Their sensory richness, prevalence in spoken and dialectal registers, and resistance to direct translation underscore their role as a repository of iconic and embodied meaning. This study thus not only documents an under-described facet of Persian grammar but also positions Persian data within broader cross-linguistic and typological discussions about iconicity, lexical categories, and the origins of linguistic symbolism. Select Bibliography Akita, K. A Grammar of Sound-Symbolic Words in Japanese: Theoretical Approaches to Iconic and Lexical Properties of Japanese Mimetics (PhD dissertation). Kobe University, Kobe, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/handle_gakui/D1004724 Akita, Kimi & Prashant Pardeshi (eds.). Ideophones, mimetics and expressives. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2019. Diffloth, G. Notes on expressive meaning. Chicago Linguistic Society, 1972, 8, 440–447. Dingemanse, Mark. Advances in the cross‐linguistic study of ideophones. Language and Linguistics Compass 6, 2012, 10, 654‐672. Dingemanse, Mark. Redrawing the margins of language: Lessons from research on ideophones. Glossa 3, 2018, 1: Article 4, 1‐30. Dingemanse, Mark. ‘Ideophone’ as a comparative concept. In: Akita, Kimi & Prashant Pardeshi (eds.), Ideophones, Mimetics and Expressives, 2019, 13‐34. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Dingemanse, Mark. Ideophones, in Eva van Lier (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Word Classes. Oxford University Pressn 2023, 466-476. Haspelmath, Martin. Comparative concepts and descriptive categories in crosslinguistic studies. Language, 2010, 86 (3):663-678. Haiman, John. Ideophones and the evolution of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018. این مقاله به بررسی مقولۀ ایده‌آوا در زبان فارسی می‌پردازد. ایده‌آواها واژگانی نشان‌دار در زبان هستند که صحنه‌ای حسی را به‌صورت شمایلی به تصویر می‌کشند و در مرز بین زبان قراردادی و زبان شمایلی قرار دارند. پس از تعریف این مقوله بهعنوان مفهومی تطبیقی، ویژگی‌های پنج‌گانۀ آن (نشان‌دار بودن، واژه بودن، تصویری بودن، حسی بودن و تعلق به طبقۀ باز) تشریح و تمایز آن از مقولات مشابهی مانند نمادپردازی آوایی، نام‌آوا، شناخت‌آوا و شبه‌جمله تبیین می‌شود. برپایۀ تقسیم‌بندی آکیتا (۲۰۰۹)، ایده‌آواهای فارسی در سه طبقۀ معنایی صوتی (مانند خِرت‌خِرت)، دیداری (مانند سلانه‌سلانه) و ذهنی (مانند قیلی‌ویلی) دسته‌بندی و نمونه‌هایی از گویش همدانی ارائه می‌گردد. از نظر دستوری، این واژه‌ها در ساخت‌های فعل مرکب (من‌من کردن)، قید حالت (سلانه‌سلانه آمد)، متمم فاعلی (گنه‌گنه‌است) و صفت (باران پِشکه‌پِشکه) بهکار می‌روند. در پایان، دربارة نقش ایده‌آواها بهعنوان پلی بین ایماواشاره و زبان قراردادی و اهمیت آنها در درک تکامل زبان بحث می‌شود.

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دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 Structural Criticism of the Method of Dictionary Writing in “Dehkhoda Dictionary” نقد ساختاری شیوة فرهنگ‌نویسی در لغت‌نامة دهخدا 115 138 9515 10.22124/plid.2026.32870.1751 FA علی صفی پور استادیار ایران‌شناسی، گروه جغرافیا، گردشگری و ایران‌شناسی دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران. 0009-0000-7422-3045 Journal Article 2026 01 29 As the largest lexicographic program of the Persian language, the Dehkhoda Dictionary has played a fundamental role in establishing and transmitting the lexical heritage of the Persian language from one generation to another. Despite the reference status of this work, its internal structure has been less critically examined from a lexicographic perspective. The present study, with the approach of structural criticism, has analyzed the internal structure of the Dehkhoda Dictionary in seven main areas including phonetics, etymology of words, the method of selecting headwords, the structure of entries, combinations, the system of intratextual references, and the method of citing extratextual sources. The research method is descriptive-analytical and based on library data, and the analyses have been conducted based on purposeful sampling of selected entries. The findings show that the Dehkhoda Dictionary, although unique and extensive in terms of the richness of linguistic data and textual evidence, faces confusion and disorganization in terms of lexicographic structure. This study, while explaining the structural confusions of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, provides a basis for a critical review and comprehensive editing of its structure, in order to maintain the position of the Dehkhoda Dictionary as the most comprehensive contemporary Persian dictionary. Extended abstract 1.Introduction As the largest and most influential Persian lexicographic program in the contemporary century, Dehkhoda's Dictionary has a unique place in Persian history and literature. The unparalleled breadth of vocabulary, the diversity and abundance of linguistic evidence, and the reliance on literary and historical texts have made this work an obvious reference in literary, linguistic, and historical studies. In a way, many subsequent dictionaries have directly or indirectly benefited from its data. However, the magnitude of this work has not led to its internal structure being examined systematically and critically, based on scientific lexicographic criteria. The main issue of the present study is to what extent Dehkhoda's Dictionary has internal coherence, information systematization, and equality with the scientific principles of lexicography, from the perspective of the lexicographic structure that Dehkhoda intended. Given that in the compilation stage of the dictionary, the style and the non-binding nature of the code and the writing of entries have emerged in the structure of this work due to the knowledge, experience and different authors. In addition, the difference between the entries compiled during Dehkhoda’s lifetime and the sections compiled after that has added to the complexity of this dictionary. The present study, with the fundamental elements of the structure of the Dehkhoda dictionary, attempts to explain an analytical picture of the structure and internal system of the Dehkhoda dictionary. 2.Theoretical framework In the tradition of modern Persian lexicography, which was established by the scientific and methodical efforts of Ali Akbar Dehkhoda in the past century, the main goal was to create a coherent structure, based on a precise alphabetical order, along with the separation of meanings and systematic citation; a framework that found institutional form in Dehkhoda's dictionary. However, in the long process of compiling the work, especially due to the large number of collaborators and the gradual accumulation of materials, the initial coherence in many entries was weakened and caused disorder in the dictionary. This structural rupture is itself the subject of criticism of this dictionary based on the theoretical framework of Dehkhoda's method of working in lexicography. 3.Methodolgy This research is of a descriptive-analytical type and is based on the structural criticism and review approach in lexicography. The data collection method is library-based and the latest printed and software edition of the Dehkhoda dictionary (1998) has been used. In the first step, the structure of the entries has been taken and formulated based on a model defined in the dictionary itself. This pattern includes the title or headword, entry recording, language and grammatical identity, meaning, meaning document, evidence, source of evidence, combinations, sources, and references. In the latter stage, purposeful and diverse samples of entries were selected to measure their level of equality with the pattern defined in the dictionary. These samples, as indicators of qualitative analysis, provided the possibility of assessing the level of internal coherence, uniformity of information, and structural efficiency of the entries. The analyses were conducted in seven main axes: phonetics or recording of words, etymology, method of selection and formation of headwords, generality and internal organization of entries, combinations, system of intratextual references, and method of citing sources and extratextual sources. In each axis, with reference to specific examples, the existing shortcomings and inconsistencies were examined and shown. 4.Results & Discussion The findings show that the Dehkhoda Dictionary, despite its unparalleled richness of linguistic data and textual evidence, is faced with confusion and disorganization in terms of lexicographic structure. In the field of phonetics, the necessary uniformity and stability in the recording of words is not observed, and sometimes different forms of a word are identified without a system. In etymology, the information provided is also not uniform, and in some entries, the roots have been identified, but in some cases, such information is also omitted or incomplete. In the field of thesaurus selection and structure of entries, the difference in the sizes of entries, the dispersion of meanings, marginalization, and the failure to examine the meanings in a main entry are prominent issues. Sometimes the meanings of a word appear in separate entries, and semantic coherence has been lost. Also, in some entries, supplementary information and long explanations have replaced the well-defined structure, making it difficult to retrieve information. In the section on combinations, there is no clear and consistent criterion for inserting or deleting combinations. The in-text citation system also faces shortcomings such as the lack of reference entries, inappropriate or distant references, references to polynomial characters without uniform organization, references to previous and subsequent entries, and the deletion of intermediate references; which confuses the user in the process of searching for information. In the area of extratextual sources and citations, there are also numerous inconsistencies: the lack of clarity of the source, general and inadequate citations, differences in the method of citing (footnotes or in-text), the omission of intermediate sources, the failure to include the source in the main entry, the absence of references in some cases, the inclusion or exclusion of page numbers, excessive mention of pages or citations, and even unnecessary citations or excessive references to dictionaries. This set of inconsistencies and shortcomings shows that the lack of a written and binding style, as well as the differences in the pen and experience of the authors of the entries, have had a direct impact on the final structure. In summary, the structural analysis shows that the Dehkhoda dictionary is influenced by the individual collection style and personal tastes of the authors rather than being a function of a unified system based on scientific principles of dictionary writing. Although this was considered natural during the period of the work’s formation, it has created serious challenges in relation to the standards of contemporary lexicography. 5.Conclusons & suggestions The present study showed that the Dehkhoda Dictionary, despite its unparalleled status in the history of Persian lexicography, does not have a systematic and unified coherence from the perspective of its internal structure. The observed disorders at various levels, from phonetics and etymology to entry, referencing and citation, indicate that this comprehensive dictionary requires structural revision. This criticism is not aimed at reducing the historical and scientific value of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, but rather with the approach of critical rereading and improving its efficiency. Accordingly, a comprehensive revision and editing of the structure of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, while preserving its historical authenticity and the richness of its data, can pave the way for transforming this great work into a coherent, systematic cultural work that is in line with contemporary research needs. Such an action will ensure the continuity of the authoritative position of this work and elevate it from the level of a historical legacy to a dynamic and efficient position in the Persian language knowledge system. Select Bibliography Anvari, Hasan. Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan (The Great Sokhan Dictionary). Under the supervision of Hasan Anvari, Tehran: Sokhan, 2003. [In Persian]. Dehkhoda, Ali Akbar. 1998. Loghat-nameh-ye Dehkhoda (Dehkhoda Dictionary), Tehran: Dehkhoda Dictionary Institute, 1998. [In Persian]. Ehteshami, Shole. “Citation Analysis of the Entries of Non-Personal Historical Proper Nouns in the Dehkhoda Dictionary.” Journal of Librarianship, 2003, 37, 40, 173–199. [In Persian]. Mirshamsi, Maryam Dehkhoda and the Dictionary. Tehran: Nashr-e Qatreh, 2024 [In Persian]. Moʿin, Mohammad. Mazdayasna and Persian Literature, Tehran: University of Tehran Press, 1947. [In Persian]. Moʿin, Mohammad. Farhang-e Farsi (Persian Dictionary), 18th edition, Tehran: Amir Kabir Publications, 2001. [In Persian]. Mosahab, Gholamhossein. Dāyerat al-Maʿāref-e Fārsi (Persian Encyclopedia), Tehran: Amir Kabir Publications, 2002. [In Persian]. Ostadi, Reza. “Deficiencies and Weaknesses in the Dehkhoda Dictionary.” Kayhan-e Andisheh, June–July 1998, nos. 78–79, 5–31. [In Persian]. Persian Orthography: Approved by the Academy of Persian Language and Literature, Tehran: Academy of Persian Language and Literature, 2010. [In Persian]. Sadeghi, Ali Ashraf. “Methods of Lexicography in the Dehkhoda Dictionary.” Farhang-nevisi (Lexicography), Academy Special Issue, 2009, 2, consecutive no. 2, 2–39. [In Persian]. لغت‌نامة دهخدا به‌عنوان بزرگ‌ترین برنامة فرهنگ‌نگاری زبان فارسی، نقشی بنیادین در تثبیت و انتقال میراث واژگانی زبان فارسی از نسلی به نسل دیگر ایفا کرده‌است. با وجود جایگاه مرجع این اثر، ساختار درونی آن کمتر از منظر فرهنگ‌نگاری بررسی انتقادی شده‌است. پژوهش حاضر با رویکرد نقد ساختاری، به تحلیل ساختار درونی لغت‌نامة دهخدا در هفت محور اصلی شامل آوانگاری، ریشه‌شناسی واژگان، شیوة گزینش سرواژه‌ها، ساختار مدخل‌ها، ترکیب‌ها، نظام ارجاع‌دهی‌ها درون‌متنی و شیوة استناد به منابع برون‌متنی پرداخته‌است. روش تحقیق توصیفی– تحلیلی و مبتنیبر داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای است و تحلیل‌ها براساس نمونه‌گیری هدفمند از مدخل‌های گزیده انجام شده‌است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که لغت‌نامة دهخدا، اگرچه از دیدگاه غنای داده‌های زبانی و شواهد متنی بی‌مانند و گسترده است، اما از نظر ساختار فرهنگ‌نگاری با آشفتگی‌ها و نابه‌سامانی‌هایی روبهروست. این مطالعه ضمن تبیین آشفتگی‌های ساختاری لغت‌نامۀ دهخدا، زمینه‌ای برای بازنگری انتقادی، و ویرایشی همهجانبة ساختار آن، برای نگاه‌داشت جایگاه لغت‌نامۀ دهخدا - به‌عنوان جامع‌ترین فرهنگ فارسی معاصر - فراهم می‌آورد.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9515_0ebf7237ce243d851549a7f06f1428ea.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 The Study of Cultuling of Cursing Based on Hymes' Ethnography of Communication Framework with Emphasis on the Jahromi Variety" بررسی زباهنگ لعن و نفرین‌ براساس انگارۀ قوم‌نگاری هایمز با تأکید بر گونۀ جهرمی 139 168 9446 10.22124/plid.2026.32009.1733 FA فاطمه تسلیم جهرمی استادیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه جهرم، جهرم، ایران رها زارعی فرد استادیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه جهرم، جهرم، ایران Journal Article 2025 10 18 The “Cultuling” (language-culture) of cursing reflects the profound role of culture in shaping language. The Jahromi variety of Persian - a dialect belonging to the Southwestern and Southern Zagros linguistic groups - contains a rich array of distinct curses. In this study, more than one hundred Jahromi curses were analyzed, using Dell Hymes’ Ethnography of Communication model and classified into four main thematic categories based on their motivations and content: (1) curses invoking physical deformity or bodily impairment, (2) curses wishing death upon the target, (3) curses condemning the target to incurable diseases, and (4) curses envisioning a harsh and miserable worldly life. Each of these categories further includes subtypes and is frequently employed in the form of past participles (e.g., “the cursed one”). The analysis reveals that cursing in Jahromi culture is not merely a linguistic act but a deeply rooted socio-cultural phenomenon embedded in religious, moral, and communal beliefs. These curses are typically uttered in moments of anger or despair, or used deliberately as instruments of moral sanction and social rebalancing. They embody the collective mentality of the Jahrom community in response to injustice, betrayal, unfairness, and mischief. Applying Hymes’ SPEAKING model demonstrates that cursing in Jahrom functions as a “court of last resort” - a form of vernacular justice. It establishes a comprehensive punitive system that operates across all existential dimensions of human life: the living body, worldly existence, and the afterlife. Interestingly, the negative structure of these curses is also repurposed in positive contexts - for instance, as protective prayers, charms against the evil eye, or even terms of endearment. Extended abstract 1.Introduction Cursing, often dismissed as a mere outburst of anger or a linguistic taboo, is in fact a profound and complex communicative act deeply embedded within the cultural and social fabric of a community. In many societies, particularly in the oral cultures of southern Iran, cursing transcends its surface-level aggression to function as a sophisticated system of vernacular justice, moral judgment, and emotional catharsis. This study focuses on the specific case of Jahrom, a city in Fars province, where cursing has evolved into a unique and highly structured discourse with its own set of rules, conventions, and metaphysical beliefs. While cursing exists across various Persian dialects, the research argues that the curses of Jahrom are not merely a collection of common vulgarities but constitute a distinct linguistic and cultural phenomenon worthy of systematic investigation. The primary aim of this paper is to move beyond a superficial lexical analysis and to explore how these curses operate as a culturally-situated speech event, revealing the core values, fears, and worldview of the Jahromi people. By doing so, this research seeks to fill a gap in the existing literature, which has often overlooked the rich ethnographic detail and theoretical depth of such vernacular practices in Iranian dialects. 2.Theoretical Framework This research is firmly grounded in Dell Hymes’ Ethnography of Communication (EOC), a paradigm that revolutionized linguistic anthropology by shifting the focus from the abstract structure of language to its actual use in social and cultural contexts. The central analytical tool of EOC is the SPEAKING model, a mnemonic device that provides a comprehensive framework for dissecting any communicative event into its constituent parts: Setting and Scene: The physical and psychological context. Participants: The speaker(s), hearer(s), and their social roles. Ends: The conventional and personal purposes of the act. Act sequence: The form and content of the message. Key: The tone, manner, or spirit of the act. Instrumentalities: The channel (e.g., spoken, written) and language variety used. Norms: The social rules governing the event and its interpretation. Genre: The recognized type or category of the speech act (e.g., curse, prayer, story). By applying this model, the study aims to provide a holistic “ethnography of speaking” that captures the intricate interplay between the linguistic form of the curse and its cultural meaning, thereby treating language as an integral part of culture - a concept Hymes referred to as “speech culture”. 3.Research Methodology This study adopts a qualitative ethnographic research design, which is the most appropriate method for an in-depth exploration of a culturally-specific communicative practice. Data was collected over a six-month period through direct fieldwork in Jahrom. The primary methods of data collection included: Participant Observation: The researcher engaged in daily life within the community, observing natural interactions and noting the contextual triggers and social dynamics surrounding the use of curses. Semi-structured Interviews: In-depth interviews were conducted with 25 native speakers of the Jahromi dialect, stratified by age (young adults, middle-aged, elderly) and gender, to gather their perceptions, beliefs, and personal experiences regarding cursing. The collected data was then analyzed using a two-stage process. First, a descriptive phase involved transcribing all audio data and cataloging the curses based on their lexical and structural features. Second, an interpretive phase applied Hymes’ SPEAKING model to each recorded instance of cursing, systematically analyzing how each component of the model shaped the meaning and function of the utterance within its specific context. 4.Findings The analysis yielded several key findings that characterize the unique nature of Jahromi curses: Distinct Identity: Despite some lexical overlap with other Persian dialects, Jahromi curses are marked by a unique combination of phonological, lexical, and pragmatic features that set them apart as a distinct genre. Demographic and Situational Specificity: The primary users are women and parents, and the act is almost exclusively confined to informal, emotionally tense, and conflict-driven situations. Religious Legitimization: Curses are frequently prefaced or suffixed with religious invocations like “Elāhi” or “Shālā,” a strategy to frame the act as a morally justified appeal to divine justice rather than a base insult. A Three-Layered System of Vernacular Justice: The full-form curse functions as a “last resort court,” articulating a comprehensive system of punishment that targets three existential dimensions: the physical body (disease, deformity), worldly life (poverty, humiliation), and the soul/afterlife (unclean death, divine abandonment). Pragmatic Flexibility: In a condensed form, these curses can serve non-aggressive functions, such as expressing mischief, warding off the evil eye, or as a vehicle for dark humor, with meaning heavily dependent on tone and context. Metapragmatic Beliefs: A rich set of folk beliefs surrounds the curse’s efficacy, including the special power of a mother’s curse, the risk of a curse rebounding on the speaker, and the supernatural agency of non-human entities like the Morgh-e Āmin. 5.Conclusion In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the curses of Jahrom are far more than a collection of aggressive words; they are a complex, rule-governed, and deeply cultural system of communication. Through the lens of Hymes’ Ethnography of Communication, it becomes clear that this discourse is a primary vessel for articulating the community’s core axiology, where honor (‘aberu’) and livelihood (‘rezq’) are valued above life itself, and a life of disgrace is the ultimate tragedy. The three-layered punishment model reveals a holistic worldview that demands justice across all dimensions of existence. This research not only contributes to the linguistic and anthropological understanding of a specific Iranian dialect but also validates the EOC framework as a powerful tool for uncovering the profound cultural meanings embedded within everyday speech acts. It underscores the necessity of studying language not in isolation, but as an inseparable part of the living culture from which it springs. Select Bibliography Dehkhoda, A. A. Loghatnameh (The Dictionary), 15 Volumes. Tehran: Tehran University Press, 1998. [in Persian] Haqayeq, Hossein. The Book of Jahrom. Qom: Vahid, 1996. [in Persian] Halabi, A. A. The History of Satire and Humor in Iran and the Islamic World. Tehran: Behban, 1998. [in Persian] Hymes, D. The Ethnography of Speaking. in J Fishman (ed.), Readings: Moulton, 99-138, 1968. Jafarzadeh, M., Ghorbanpour Arani, H., & Zarei, A. Cursing in Vernacular Language Based on Content Analysis Method. Linguistics, 14(43), 189–212, 2022. [in Persian] Doi: 10.22051/jlr.2021.36003.2042 Mahouzi, M., Tavousi, M., & Saravi, V. A Comparative Study of the Theme of Cursing in the Couplets of Khorasan and Mazandaran Localities. Journal of Literature and Local Languages of Iranian Land, 7(16), 31–50, 2017. [in Persian] Doi:20.1001.1.23454466.1401.10.43.4.7 Pishghadam, R. Introducing Zabaahang as a Transformative Tool in Language Culture Study. Studies in Language and Translation, 45(4), 47–61, 2012. [in Persian] زباهنگ نفرین، نقش فرهنگ را در زبان بازنمایی میکند. گونۀ جهرمی زبان فارسی به‌عنوان یکی از گونه‌های جنوب غربی و زاگرس جنوبی، از این نظر انواع مختلفی از نفرین را در خود جای داده‌است. در این مطالعه، بیش از یکصد نفرین جهرمی براساس مدل قوم‌‌نگاری ارتباط هایمز بررسی و براساس انگیزه‌ها و مضامین به چهار گروه اصلی دستهبندی شد: نفرین‌های مرتبط با نقص جسمانی، آرزوی مرگ، گرفتاری به بیماری‌های بی‌درمان، زندگی سخت دنیوی. هر کدام نیز زیرمجموعه‌هایی دارند و به‌صورت صفت مفعولی نیز به‌کار رفته‌اند. تحلیل این نفرین‌ها نشان می‌‌دهد که نفرین در فرهنگ جهرمی یک کنش زبانی صرف نیست، بلکه پدیده‌‌ای فرهنگی ـ اجتماعی عمیق است و ریشه در باورهای دینی، اخلاقی و اجتماعی دارد. این نفرین‌ها اغلب در لحظات خشم، ناامیدی یا به‌عنوان ابزاری برای تنبیه اخلاقی و بازگرداندن تعادل اجتماعی به‌کار می‌‌روند و نشان‌دهندۀ واکنش ذهنیت جمعی جهرم در برابر ظلم، خیانت، بی‌عدالتی و شیطنت هستند. تحلیل نفرین‌های گونۀ جهرمی در مدل هایمز نشان می‌دهد که نفرین در جهرم، آخرین دادگاه یا عدالت عامیانه محسوب می‌شود و در تمام ابعاد وجودی انسان اعم از بدن زنده، زندگی دنیوی و حیات اخروی، سیستمی کامل برای مجازات و تقصیریابی ایجاد کرده‌است. ساخت منفی این نفرین‌ها به‌صورت دعا، رفع چشمزخم و در مقام تحبیب نیز به‌کار می‌رود.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9446_84c4e42ad7086bda02441912741b71d6.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 Ecolinguistics in Proverbs: A Comparative Study of Animal Names in Bakhtiari Luri and Gilaki زبان‌شناسی زیست‌محیطی در ضرب‌المثل‌ها: بررسی تطبیقی نام حیوانات در لری بختیاری و گیلکی 169 195 9485 10.22124/plid.2026.30039.1711 FA لیلا میردار سلطانی دانشجوی دکتری زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد علوم و تحقیقات، تهران، ایران. 0009-0003-8329-2394 زهرا ابوالحسنی چیمه دانشیار، گروه زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدة ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه تهران، ایران مهناز کربلایی صادق استادیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد علوم و تحقیقات، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2025 03 05 This comparative study explores the cultural significance of animal-related proverbs in the Bakhtiari Luri and Gilaki languages. Adopting an analytical approach, the research examines the cultural concepts embedded in the natural phenomena represented in the proverbs of the two speech communities. The corpus was compiled through library research by collecting Gilaki and Bakhtiari proverbs, which were subsequently described and analyzed within relevant thematic and discursive frameworks. The data consists of 72 Bakhtiari and 109 Gilaki proverbs concerning domestic animals, classified according to animal species and discourse categories, and examined descriptively and analytically. The findings indicate that donkeys, camels, and ewes are dominant in Bakhtiari proverbs, reflecting the community’s mountainous ecosystem, nomadic lifestyle, and pastoral economy. In contrast, dogs, birds, horses, and cattle are more prominent in Gilaki proverbs, which align with the plains and wetlands of the Caspian region. Discourse analysis reveals that Gilaki proverbs emphasize moral and social values, while Bakhtiari ones focus more on the functional and utilitarian aspects of animals. These results suggest that proverbs, beyond their literary and didactic functions, embody ecological knowledge and cultural metaphors that vividly reflect the interrelationship between humans, animals, and the environment in local folk cultures. Extended Abstract 1.Introduction This study, drawing on the framework of ecolinguistics, examines the role of language in shaping human attitudes toward nature and its subsequent impact on either the degradation or preservation of ecosystems. As a reflection of community’s culture, beliefs, rituals, and identity, language, particularly in the form of proverbs, can reveal the relationship between society and the natural world and provide a basis for gradually transforming environmental discourses. In this regard, proverbs related to domesticated animals in Bakhtiari Luri and Gilaki are analyzed as sources for understanding the mindset and lifestyle of people living in Iran’s mountainous and temperate regions. The analysis of these proverbs enables a systematic elucidation of their role in representing cultural and ecological dimensions, as well as the implications that their similarities and differences hold for environmental attitudes. Ultimately, the study demonstrates how the linguistic structures of these two dialects have been shaped by the surrounding environment and what function they perform in sustaining or transforming environmental orientations. 2.Theoretical Framework In this section, the influence of environmental characteristics of each ecological zone on the morphological, syntactic, and lexical structures of dialects and their role in shaping metaphors and regional dialectal variation is highlighted. Ecolinguistics seeks to explain linguistic and dialectal diversity through environmental factors, demonstrating that even dialects within a single geographical region cannot be fully understood without considering ecological conditions. The discussion then turns to animal metaphors, which are widely used across cultures to conceptualize human attributes and are grounded in the behavior, behavioral patterns, human-animal interactions, and physical appearance of animals. As cognitive and linguistic tools, animal metaphors represent human traits and states by referencing animals, thereby enhancing the expressive capacity of language in articulating abstract concepts. Humanities often attribute human-like qualities to animals and subsequently employ these attributed characteristics to explain their own behaviors. Furthermore, an examination of the role of metaphor in environmental scientific discourse illustrates how unreflective metaphor use can lead to social misunderstandings and policies that run counter to sustainability, whereas the deliberate and informed selection of metaphors can foster a more coherent alignment between scientific concepts and the social values associated with environmental sustainability. 3.Methodology Ecolinguistics is an interdisciplinary field that examines the reciprocal relationship between language and the environment, exploring how physical and social ecological factors influence the structure and functions of language. Within this framework, the notions of a linguistic ecosystem emphasize the bidirectional interaction between language and its environment, positioning language as both a product and a producer of the surrounding world. A segment of research in this field overlaps with discourse analysis, demonstrating how linguistic categorizations, including those related to animals, are shaped by their perceived utility and their relationship to humans. Meanwhile, cultural linguistics, drawing on concepts such as cognition, schemas, categories, and cultural metaphors, accounts for the relationship between language and culturally grounded conceptualizations. Within this perspective, proverbs are regarded as dynamic linguistic and cultural units, not merely historical remnants but active tools for representing experience and facilitating problem-solving. Studies on proverbs reveal that they are deeply ingrained in culture and acquire nuanced meanings depending on their context and situational use. From a discourse-oriented viewpoint, they can be classified along a continuum ranging from beneficial to destructive discourses. In this approach, the primary criterion for analyzing proverbs lies in their implicit meanings rather than their surface-level thematic content. 4.Results & Discussion This research examines proverbs featuring animal names in the Bakhtiari and Gilaki dialects from an ecolinguistic and cultural linguistic perspective. In the Bakhtiari corpus, the high frequency of animal names, particularly donkey and dog, reflects the nomadic population’s livelihood and symbolic bond with livestock and the natural environment. These proverbs utilize animal nomenclature to judge and evaluate human behaviors and social relations through the lenses of morality, social standing, and power dynamics. Analysis of 72 Bakhtiari proverbs reveals that the highest frequencies belong to donkey (30%) and dog (19%), with the majority of these instances falling within the category of destructive discourse. Similarly, within the Gilaki discourse, situated in a forested and coastal climate, animal names, especially dog, occupy a central position. Among the 109 Gilaki proverbs analyzed, dog accounts for 37% of occurrences, followed by horse, cow, cat, goat, and various birds. In these proverbs, themes of ethics, social relations, and power-seeking remain prominent, with the share of destructive discourse reported to be significantly higher than that of beneficial discourse. These results demonstrate that in both dialects, domestic animals function far beyond mere biological reference; they play a pivotal role in the conceptualization of human relationships, power hierarchies, and cultural value systems. 5.Conclusion & Suggestions The findings of this study indicate that proverbs containing animal names in the Bakhtiari Luri and Gilaki dialects embody the environmental and cultural concepts and beliefs of their speakers, functioning as repositories of intergenerational knowledge. A comparison of the two corpora shows that the prominence of donkey in Bakhtiari culture and the high frequency of dog names as well as the presence of birds in Gilaki culture is directly linked to the ecological conditions and livelihood patterns of each region. The absence or presence of certain species (such as camel, ram, goose, and stork) reflects underlying geographical and cultural distinctions. The pattern of animal naming in these proverbs is not arbitrary; rather, it is grounded in lived experience and the everyday encounters of communities with local animal species. Consequently, proverbs implicitly represent an awareness of biodiversity and the interdependence between humans and other living beings. In both dialects, animals serve not only ecological roles but also act as powerful tools for transmitting knowledge, experience, and social values, with their characteristics being used to describe and evaluate human behavior. Discourse analysis reveals that Gilaki proverbs exhibit a higher proportion of moral and social themes compared to Bakhtiari, whereas in domains related to power-seeking and destructive discourse, the two communities display similar patterns. Bakhtiari Luri, however, records a greater share of beneficial discourse. These differences demonstrate that cultural preferences, social needs, and communal priorities are directly reflected in the selection of themes and the conceptualization of animals in proverbs, positioning language as a subtle indicator for interpreting the relationship between culture, climate, and ecosystem. Select Bibliography Estaji A, Nakhavali F. Semantic derogation in Persian animal proverbs. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2011 Sep 12;1(9):1213-7. Doi: 10.4304/tpls. 1.9. 1213-1217 [In English]. Ghatre. Fariba & Poshtvan. Hamide & Talebi Dastnaei. Mahnaz. An Environmental Approach in Linguistic Research. Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. 2015. [In Persian]. Hsieh, Shelley Ching-yu.. (2008)"Cognitive models of using animal and plant metaphors." Languages across Cultures (2008): 131-149. [In English]. Naghdi-pour. Mosa. The Purest Bakhtiari Proverbs. Ahwaz. Khatam Sabz. 2004. [In Persian]. Porhelm, Mohammad. A survey and classification of Gilaki proverbs. Nashre Farhange Ilia. Rasht, 2014. [In Persian]. Sapir. Edward. Language and environment. The ecolinguistics reader. Language, ecology and environment. 2001:13-23. [In English] Sharifi. Azade & Nadimi. Narjes. A Semantic Analysis of the Use of Animal Names in Lari Dialect Proverbs (Based on Denotation, Subjectivity, and Social Function). Languages and Dialects (The Academy’s Special Issue), 2018. [In Persian]. Sharifian, Farzad. (2017). Cultural Linguistics: Cultural conceptualisations and language (Vol. 8). John Benjamins Publishing Company. [In English]. Soleimanian. Mostafa & Naghizade. Mahmood. Metaphor in Lori Proverbs (With an Emphasis on Proverbs of Baghmalek Region). Tarava. Ahwaz. 2018. [In Persian]. Wolf. Hans-Georg. Language and culture in intercultural communication. InThe Routledge handbook of language and culture 2014 Dec 17 (pp. 445-459). Routledge. [In English]. پژوهش حاضر با رویکرد تطبیقی، اهمیت فرهنگی ضرب‌المثل‌های مرتبط با حیوانات در لری بختیاری و گیلکی را بررسی کردهاست. در این پژوهش، با رویکرد تحلیلی، مفاهیم فرهنگی پدیده‌های طبیعی این دو منطقه بررسی شدهاست. پیکرة داده‌ها از منابع کتابخانه‌ای با جمع‌آوری ضرب‌المثل‌های گیلکی و بختیاری به‌دست‌آمده و سپس با توجه به موضوع و گفتمان توصیف و تحلیل شدهاست. داده‌ها ۷۲ ضرب‌المثل بختیاری و ۱۰۹ ضرب‌المثل گیلکی دربارة حیوانات اهلی است که براساس گونة‌ حیوانات و گفتمان‌های مختلف طبقه‌بندی ‌شده و به‌صورت توصیفی–تحلیلی بررسی شده‌است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد در ضرب‌المثل‌های بختیاری، حیواناتی چون خر، شتر و میش بسامد بالاتری دارند و این امر با زیست‌بوم کوهستانی، کوچ‌نشینی و اقتصاد دامداری این جامعه پیوند دارد، درحالی‌که در گیلکی، سگ، پرندگان، اسب و گاو متناسب با اکوسیستم جلگه‌ای و تالابی برجسته‌تر هستند. تحلیل گفتمان ضرب‌المثل‌ها نشان می‌دهد که در گویش گیلکی، مضامین اخلاقی و اجتماعی سهم بیشتری دارند، حال‌آنکه در بختیاری بر عملکرد و سودمندی حیوانات تأکید بیشتری دارند. این نتایج بیانگر آن است که ضرب‌المثل‌ها، افزونبر کارکرد ادبی و آموزشی، حامل دانش زیست‌محیطی و استعاره‌‌های فرهنگی‌ هستند که رابطة‌ انسان، حیوان و محیط‌زیست را در فرهنگ‌عامه به‌روشنی منعکس می‌کنند.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9485_a0e2b28e27cec36df224d3b3013f152d.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 Linguistic Aspects of Written Text Comprehension in Secondary School Students: Evidence from Inference-Making Process جنبه های زبان شناختی درک متن نوشتاری در دانش آموزان دورۀ متوسطه: شواهدی از فرایند استنباط سازی 197 226 9402 10.22124/plid.2026.32495.1739 FA پردیس نداف فهمیده دانش آموختۀ کارشناسی ارشد زبان‌شناسی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران مریم دانای طوس دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران منصور شعبانی دانشیار زبان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه گیلان، رشت، ایران Journal Article 2025 12 09 Reading constitutes a fundamental skill, with text comprehension as its ultimate goal. Among the critical components underlying reading comprehension is the ability to make inferences. This quantitative study, employing a quasi-experimental design, aimed to investigate potential differences in inference-making skill between the strong and weak 1st and 2nd cycle secondary school students. To this end, a sample of 80 male students in 4 groups (20 in each group, weak and strong groups at 1st & 2nd cycle secondary school levels) from public schools in Some'esarā city (in Guilān province) was selected using convenience sampling. The criterion for being weak or strong was their score on a test to determine their level of written text comprehension. All four groups completed an inference-making test, and their ability in terms of coherence and elaborative inferences was analyzed with two inferential tests: independent t-test and Mann-Whitney U. The results indicated that strong readers, in both levels, significantly outperformed their weak counterparts in both types of inferences. Additionally, strong 2nd cycle students demonstrated significantly higher proficiency in elaborative inference-making, compared to strong 1st cycle students, whereas no statistically significant difference was observed between these two groups in terms of coherence inference-making. Moreover, weak 2nd cycle students significantly outperformed the weak 1st cycle counterparts in terms of coherence inference-making, although no significant difference was found between the two weak groups in terms of elaborative inference-making. These findings contribute to the growing body of research on reading comprehension development and offer practical implications for educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers. Extended Abstract 1.Introduction Reading comprehension, the ultimate goal of reading, is a dynamic process that involves not only decoding words and sentences but also constructing a coherent mental model of the text. A critical component of this model-building is inference-making, the cognitive process of connecting explicit textual information with prior knowledge to fill in implicit gaps (Butterfuss et al., 2020; Kispal, 2008). Proficient readers continuously generate inferences to achieve deep understanding. However, significant individual differences exist in this ability. While international research extensively explores inference-making, a notable gap exists in the Iranian national context, particularly concerning secondary school students. The consistently poor performance of Iranian students in international reading assessments (e.g., PIRLS) underscores the urgency of this investigation. This study, therefore, aimed to compare the coherent and elaborative inference skills of strong and weak comprehenders among Iranian junior and senior secondary school students. 2.Theoretical Framework This study is grounded in construction-integration models of reading comprehension (e.g., Kintsch, 1998), which posit that understanding requires building both a text base (from explicit content) and a situational model (through inference). We focus on two primary inference types: coherent inferences (bridging explicit ideas within the text) and elaborative inferences (integrating text information with world knowledge) (Bayat & Çetinkaya, 2020; Cain & Oakhill, 1999). The ability to make these inferences depends on working memory capacity, vocabulary knowledge, and the strategic application of prior knowledge (Perfetti & Stafura, 2014). This framework guides the examination of how these cognitive skills manifest differently across comprehension proficiencies and educational levels. 3.Methodology A quantitative, quasi-experimental design was employed. The participants were 80 male students from Some'e Sarā, Guilān province, Iran, divided into four groups: strong and weak comprehenders from both first cycle (9th grade) and second cycle (12th grade) secondary school levels. Participants were classified using a validated Persian Reading Comprehension Test (Ghavāmi Lāhij et al., 2018). The independent variables were comprehension level (strong/weak) and educational level (first & second cycle secondary school). The dependent variable was the score on a researcher-made inference-making test (Ghavāmi Lāhij & Dānāye Tous, 2022), which assessed coherent and elaborative inferences, respectively, through multiple-choice questions following four expository texts. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics and they were analyzed using inferential tests (Mann-Whitney U and Independent Samples t-test), with SPSS software. 4.Results & Discussion Key Findings: Within both educational levels, strong comprehenders significantly outperformed weak comprehenders in both coherent and elaborative inference-making (p < .05). Between educational levels, strong comprehenders in second cycle secondary school showed no significant advantage in coherent inference over their first cycle counterparts (p > .05), but they were significantly better at elaborative inference (p < .05). Weak comprehenders in second cycle secondary school performed significantly better than weak first cycle students in coherent inference (p < .05), but no significant difference was found for the elaborative inference (p > .05). The superior performance of strong comprehenders across the board confirms that inference-making is a core differentiator of reading skill (Cain et al., 2001). The lack of growth in coherent inference among strong students across the educational levels suggests this skill stabilizes early and may not develop significantly without explicit instruction (Oakhill & Cain, 2012). In contrast, the development of elaborative inference in strong second cycle students highlights the role of accumulated knowledge and cognitive maturation (Sillagi et al., 2015). The progress in coherent inference among weak second cycle students may stem from increased reading exposure and practice with basic textual connections. However, their stagnation in elaborative inference points to a persistent deficit in accessing and integrating prior knowledge, a more complex skill requiring targeted pedagogical intervention (Bayat & Çetinkaya, 2020). 5.Conclusions & Suggestions This study concludes that while foundational coherent inference skills may develop with general education and exposure, higher-order elaborative inference skills require more strategic cognitive resources and do not develop automatically. The significant proportion of weak comprehenders highlights a systemic challenge in Iranian Persian language education. The findings imply an urgent need to revise curricula and teaching methods to include explicit, direct instruction in inference-making strategies, particularly elaborative inference. Teachers should design activities that actively activate students' prior knowledge and teach them how to connect it to the text. For future research, longitudinal studies, intervention-based designs, and replications with female students and larger samples are recommended to generalize findings and develop effective instructional packages. Select Bibliography Bayat, N., Çetinkaya, G. The relationship between inference skills and reading comprehension. Education and Science, 2020, 1, 1-14. doi: 10.15390/EB.2020.8782 Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. V. Inference making ability and its relation to comprehension failure in young children. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1999, 11(5-6), 489–503. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008084120205 Ghavāmi Lāhij, S. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies underlying written text comprehension: Evidence from phonological awareness, inferencing, working memory, and comprehension monitoring [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, 2018. (Original work published 1397) [in Persian] Ghavāmi Lāhij, S., & Danāye Tous, M. Inference strategy in written text comprehension: Evidence from strong and weak Persian-speaking students in reading comprehension. Zabān-pazhūhī (Linguistic Research), 2022, 14(42), 97–123. https://doi.org/10.22051/jlr.2021.35373.2008 (Original work published 1401) [in Persian] Kispal, A. Effective teaching of inference skills for reading: Literature review. Research Report DCSF-RR031. National Foundation for Educational Research, 2008. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/7918 Kintsch, W. Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge University Press. APA PsycInfo, 1998. Negahdār, B., Dānāye Tous, M., & Sorāhi, M. The relationship between working memory and reading with written text comprehension among secondary school students: A psycho-linguistic perspective. Journal of Educational Innovations, 2019, 18(70), 81–100. https://doi.org/10.22034/jei.2019.92885 (Original work published 1398) [in Persian] Oakhill, J., & Cain, K. The precursors of reading ability in young readers: Evidence from a four-year longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2012, 16(2), 91–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2010.529219 Perfetti, C. A., & Stafura, J. Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2014, 18(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687 Silagi, M.L., Romero, V.U., Mansur, L.L., Radanovic, M. Inference comprehension during reading: Influence of age and education in normal adults. Codas, 2015, 26(5), 407-414. DOI:10.1590/2317-1782/20142013058 خواندن، مهارتی زبانشناختی است که هدف نهایی آن درک متن است و یکی از مهمترین مؤلفههای درک متن، استنباطسازی است. این پژوهش کمّی با هدفِ بررسی تفاوت میان دانشآموزان دورههای متوسطۀ اول و دوم از نظر مهارت استنباطسازی انجام شد. به اینمنظور، نمونه‌ای متشکل از ۸۰ دانش‌آموز پسر در دو گروه ضعیف و دو گروه قوی از مدارس دولتی شهرستان صومعهسرا با استفاده از روش نمونه‌گیری در دسترس انتخاب شدند و در آزمون استنباطسازی شرکت کردند. نمرات افراد از نظر دو نوع استنباط پیوسته و تفصیلی با دو آزمون تی مستقل و یو من-ویتنی تجزیهوتحلیل شد. نتایج نشان داد که دانشآموزان قوی هر دو دوره، از نظر هر دو نوع استنباط توانایی بیشتری نسبت به دانشآموزان ضعیف دارند. دانشآموزان قوی دورۀ دوم در استنباط تفصیلی نسبت به دانشآموزان قوی دورۀ اول به طرز معناداری عملکرد بهتری داشتند. همچنین، دانشآموزان ضعیف دورۀ دوم در استنباط پیوسته به طرز معناداری عملکرد بهتری از دانشآموزان ضعیف دورۀ اول داشتند. پیامدهای این یافتهها به بحث گذاشته میشود.

https://zaban.guilan.ac.ir/article_9402_4df2871541e9867b101b7aac7c94f335.pdf

دانشگاه گیلان زبان فارسی و گویش‌های ایرانی 2476-6585 10 2 2026 02 20 The position of adjectival and descriptive groups in four articles on prosody system based on Halliday's category theory and measure Couplets جایگاه گروه‌های قیدی و وصفی در چهارمقاله نظامی عروضی براساس نظریة مقوله و میزان هلیدی 227 247 9565 10.22124/plid.2026.32723.1743 FA وحید مبارک دانشیار زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشکدة ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران 0000-0002-8696-6564 Journal Article 2026 01 02 The Majma’ al-Nawader or Chahar Magale, written in prose in 551 H. for the king of Ghoriyye Bamiyya (Al-Shansab-Ali Ghori, Jahansuz), is about the need for kings to have four classes (scribes, poets, astronomers and physicians) to establish their rule. It consists of an introduction and four chapters, each of which has 10 and sometimes 12 stories. The four-article structured prose is intermediate between the mursal and technical prose. The descriptive study of the structures of words, compounds, sentences and how the adverbs and adjectives used in the syntactic structure of speech, along with the stems of verbs (nominal part with compound verb) of the four-article is a linguistic study and helps in understanding the course of language development. The findings of this descriptive-analytical research based on the theory of category and Halliday's measure show that the use of structures such as co-ordinate adverbial and adverbial words and sentences, and Arabic verb stems with high frequency, have paved the way for the expansion of sentences and changes in the structure of sentences and speech. In addition, the use of Arabic sources, subject nouns, object nouns, and a large number of similar adjectives, with the high frequency of the use of two verbs of speech and hearing, as well as the abundance of compound sentences that are inconsistent with simple sentences, has led to the emergence of extended sentences and the introduction of infinitives. Necessary verbs have been used less than transitive verbs, and the use of the verbs, “hast”, “ast”, “bud”, “bovad”, “gasht”, “gardid” and “aamad” is more frequent than other necessary verbs that are aware of the educational content and educational aspect of the text. These changes have been made to highlight the text in terms of language, thought, and literature, and as a result, a change in style. Extended Abstract 1.Introduction The syntactic structure of the Persian language and its sentences and the morphological structure of compounds and compound words with the use of nouns (both active and passive) and infinitives and adjectives similar to Arabic led to the expansion of the vocabulary field and the empowerment of writers and editors in writing sources and texts. In the meantime, adverbial and descriptive groups in the Persian language were used frequently to explain the text and its atmosphere as much as possible, and with this change, simple and short sentences of the mursal style were transformed into long and compound sentences, and simple sentences prevailed in terms of frequency. The derivational structure of the Arabic language allowed Iranian scholars who studied the Arabic language for various educational, religious, governmental requirements, etc. reasons to use various structures of Arabic words in the Persian language. This was a borrowing that added to the richness of the Persian language, which seemed not to be far removed from the weaknesses of the Pahlavi language. This was a borrowing that added to the richness of the Persian language, which seemed not to be far removed from the weaknesses of the Pahlavi language. It is believed that in these lexical borrowings, Arabic adjectives and derivations, which have a greater lexical meaning than other words due to the nature of the word, were more welcomed than other categories of the Arabic language. And since changing the grammatical class of these Arabic words (derivatives and adjectives) in Persian sometimes did not require changing the word structure or using special signs and movements, they were easily used in different classes of words, from prepositions and adjectives, verb bases, nouns, and noun pronouns, and became Iranian. The writing of books such as the Siasat-Nameh, Siral-ul-Mulk, and Khodaynameh, which included the way kings acted in situations and issues that arose for them, in addition to sociological and psychological information, also had an educational purpose and educational aspect for past kings who often came to power by force of the sword and perhaps rose from slavery to the rank of Vashaqi and Hajibi, and then to the rank of Emir and Sepahsalra. Such was the case of Sabokatkin Ghaznavi, who, by removing his Samanid patron, ruled over a part of his territory. The Seljuks were in a similar situation to the Ghaznavids. One of the kings of the Ghoriyya (Al-Shansab) who were able to rule Herat, Ghazni, Bamyan and Takharistan from 543 to 612 AH, after dominating the Ghaznavids, was Husam al-Din Abul-Hasan Ali Ghori, for whom Nizami Aruzi wrote the Four Articles. And, looking at himself and his abilities, he saw the necessity of the existence of four classes of scholars and scholars as necessary and essential for the Ghori king and other kings and their courts: scribes, poets, astronomers and physicians. 2.Theoretical framework One of the rules based on the theory of structural linguistics is the description of the grammatical structure of the Persian language, which is written based on Halliday's category and measure theory. In this theory, the category is a defining and includes four parts: unit, structure, class, and system, and the measure shows the aspects of appearance, analysis, and levels. Perhaps it can be said with tolerance that the category pays more attention to the morphological aspect of the language, and the measure deals with the syntactic aspect of the language. The determination of the sentence, clause, group, word, and vocable is done in the units section. The way a word is placed in a sentence or the determination of the association relationship between words and groups is examined in the section on determining the structure and construction. The determination of the type of noun, adjective, adverb, verb, and prepositional groups is examined in the category classes section. Finally, the division of the components within the group into smaller components and the determination of structures that can no longer be divided into smaller units are studied and examined in the category systems section. In fact, categories are the infrastructures of sentences and, since they are structured, they can be divided into smaller components. In the scale section of this theory, how grammatical rules are transformed into sentences and the rules of syntactic construction are examined. In the analysis section of the theory, the multi-part nature of sentences and the presence or absence of a verb group are examined. In the hierarchy branch, clauses (coherence and incoherence), groups and the part of a group of words are determined. Categories deal with the vertical and optional axis, and scale deals with the horizontal and chain axis of sentences and language. This theory has a structuralist perspective and avoids semanticism as much as possible. (Quoted in meaning and abbreviated: Batani, 2007: 35-73) It should be added that Halliday (2014: 87) then, in his grammatical role-oriented view, which has a considerable semantic orientation, pays special attention to the context of the situation that expresses the context of speech and studies the components of the semantic system of language in logical and empirical relations, intertextual relations and interpersonal relations. This view, along with the meta-syntactic functions of speech and the goals and functions of the sentence and language, studies beyond the sentence and reveals the common context and mentalities between the speaker and the listener (writer and reader) that determine discourse and facilitate communication. Agha Golzadeh (2015:88) also believes that “role-oriented views of language are semantic and believe that language has a functional and instrumental role in society and the social system and is a tool for meeting needs and communication, etc., and in general, in this view, the text finds its meaning in the functional context.” The study of adverbs and adjectives of a work is related to the category section in terms of structure and to the quantity section in terms of chain connection. 3.Methodology and Research Question This descriptive-structuralist essay, using an inductive and selective method and based on Haliday's category and measure theory, has selected, examined and analyzed the stories of chapters four and five of the four articles of the Samarqandi Prose System with the only story mentioned in the introduction of the work, syntactically, structurally and grammatically. The reason why the introductions of the chapters were not analyzed is that they did not express the entirety of the text and its syntactic structure; however, the stories more or less include the general characteristics of the book, with the difference that Arabic words have less lexical and semantic complexity and scientific terms than the introductions of the chapters. This essay is an answer to the question of how the restrictive and descriptive groups and clauses are used in the syntactic structure of the four articles? 4.Results & Discussion The findings show that the use of structures such as co-ordinate adverbial and descriptive words and sentences, and high-frequency Arabic verb stems, have paved the way for the expansion of sentences and changes in sentence structure, vocabulary, and style of speech. 5.Conclusions & Suggestions The four articles, which have received less attention from a linguistic point of view, have a dual prose. This essay, by describing the construction of the adverbs and adjectives of the four articles, has provided the basis for historical and evolutionary studies of language. Most likely, in the era of the prosody system, it was not possible to change the style and highlight the text by using imagery or changing the use of verbs and letters as much as adverbs and adjectives. Therefore, the author has made his individual style different from the simple and direct style in terms of thought by showing himself as wise, and in terms of language by increasing the frequency of adverbs and adjectives, by borrowing from Arabic words, expressing details, and constructing extensive and complex sentences, and in terms of literary space by creating atmosphere. On the other hand, although the author does not speak of his discourse of awareness and influence, signs of the author's instillation of wisdom and the educational nature of the text can be detected by expressing details and in its simplicity and fluency (for the audience). The use of adverbs and adjectives in dependent clauses of compound sentences is more than the use of infinitives, and there are more adverbs of time than other adverbs, and adverbs of adjectives occupy a large part of compound sentences. The use of transitive verbs with an Arabic verb base is much greater than that of imperative verbs, and the verbs of "to hear" and "to hear" are used much more frequently and are used frequently in the construction of compound sentences. The presence of linking verbs (“ast”, “hast”, “bud”, “bovad”, “gasht”, “gardid”, “amad” and “shod” …etc.) is more frequent than other verbs, which, by constructing their three news parts, require the use of more descriptive groups and reveal the news content and educational aspect of having four articles. Arabic loanwords are mostly of the type of adjectives, subject nouns, object nouns, and adverbs, which are often used as adverbs. Select Bibliography Azarnoosh, Azartash. Adverbs in Arabic Grammar, Articles and Reviews, 1988, 45 and 46, 21-42. Aghagolzadeh, Ferdows. Critical Discourse Analysis, Tehran: Elmi, 2015. Batani, Mohammad Reza. Description of the Grammatical Structure of the Persian Language, 19th edition, Tehran: Amirkabir, 2007. Chomsky, Noam. Language and Mind, 4th edition, Tehran: Hermes, 2009. Farshidvard, Khosrow. Detailed Grammar Today, Tehran: Sokhan, 2003. Farshidvard, Khosrow. Discourses on Persian Grammar, Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1996. Gholam al-Zadeh, Khosrow. The Construction of the Persian Language, Tehran: Revival of the Book, 2011. Halliday, Maikel and Hasan, Roqaiya. Language, Context and Text, Translated by Mojtaba Monshizadeh and Tahereh Ishani. Tehran: Elmi, 2014. Hartman, H. Linguistics, in Collection of Articles: Linguistics and Literature, Translated by Kourosh Safavi, Tehran: Hermes, 2007. Martine, André. Fundamentals of General Linguistics, Translator, translated into Persian by Hormoz Milanian, second edition, Tehran: Hermes, 2008. Meshkateddini, Mehdi. Persian Grammar, Vocabulary and Structural Connections, Tehran: Samt, 1999. Mobarak, Vahid; Lak, Maryam. The Position of the Adverb and Its Frequency in Amir Arsalan Rumi, Grammatical and Rhetorical Research, 2022, 12(21), 261-290. Nizami Aruzi Samarqandi, Nizam al-Din Ahmad ibn Omar. Chahar Magale, Majm al-Nawadir, Tehran: Jami, 2003. Vahidian Kamyar, Taghi; Omrani, Gholamreza. (2006). Persian Grammar (1), 8th edition, Tehran: Samt, 2006. مجمعالنوادر یا چهارمقاله که به نثر و در سال551 برای پادشاه غوریه بامیه نوشته شده‌است درمورد نیاز پادشاهان به داشتن چهار طبقه (دبیران، شاعران، منجمان و طبیبان) برای استوارکردن فرمانروایی است با یک مقدمه و چهار باب که هرکدام 10 و گاه 12 قصه دارند. نثر ساختمند چهارمقاله، بینابین نثر مرسل و فنی است. مطالعة توصیفی ساختهای واژگان، ترکیبها، جملهها و چگونگی کاربست قیدها و صفتها در ساخت نحوی کلام، همراه پایة فعلها (جزء اسمی همراه فعل مرکب) در چهارمقاله، مطالعهای زبانشناختی است و در شناخت سیر تحول زبان یاریگر است. یافتههای این پژوهش براساس نظریة مقوله و میزان هلیدی نشان میدهد که کاربست سازههایی همچون واژگان و جملههای قیدی و وصفی همپایه، و پایههای فعلی عربی با بسامد بالا، زمینهساز گستردهشدن جملهها و تغییر ساخت جملهها و کلام گشتهاند. بهعلاوه به‌کارگیری مصادر، اسم فاعلها و اسم مفعولها و صفت مشبههای فراوان عربی، با بسامد بالای دو فعل گفت و شنید و نیز فراوانی جملههای مرکب ناهمپایه نسبت به جملههای ساده، سبب بروز جملههای بسط داده شده و ورود به اطناب شده‌است. فعلهای لازم کمتر از فعلهای متعدی بهکاربرده شدهاند و کاربست فعل‌های است، هست، بود، بُود، گشت، گردید و آمد، بیشتر از دیگر افعال لازم است که خبر از محتوای تعلیمی و جنبة آموزشی متن دارند. این تغییرات برای برجستهسازی متن از نظر زبانی، فکری و ادبی و در نتیجه تغییر سبک بوده‌است.

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